You Will Never Believe These Bizarre Truths Behind "Home Sweet Home": Remembering John Howard Paine’s "Home Sweet Home"



Unveiling the Astonishing Facts about "Home Sweet Home": Commemorating John Howard Payne's Timeless Masterpiece

Introduction

John Howard Paine

Man’s greatest longing is for home. Home is the very essential core of our family: love is its circumference and peace is its centre. These two fulfilled, life has no regret. And they are both fulfilled together, never separately. People have tried to fulfill love without freedom. Then love brings more and more misery, more and more bondage. Then love is not what one has expected it to be, it turns out just the opposite. It shatters all hopes, it destroys all expectations and life becomes a wasteland -- a groping in darkness and never finding the door. Love without freedom naturally tends to be possessive. And the moment possessiveness enters, you start creating bondage for others and bondage for yourself -- because you cannot possess somebody without being possessed by him. You cannot make somebody a slave without becoming a slave yourself. Whatever you do to others is done to you. This is the basic principle to be understood, that love without freedom never brings fulfillment. Herein Paine’s Home Sweet Home we also celebrate love with the greatest possession of Home that makes it really sweet. Thus, 
"Home Sweet Home," a phrase that resonates with warmth and nostalgia, has deep-rooted significance for many individuals. The origins of this beloved phrase can be traced back to a sentimental song written by John Howard Payne in the 19th century. This article explores the fascinating truths behind Payne's "Home Sweet Home," uncovering its enduring legacy and the remarkable story of its creator.

Now let’s take the whole poem a recite:

Home Sweet Home
John Howard Payne

Mid pleasures and palaces though we may roam,
Be it ever so humble, there's no place like home;
A charm from the sky seems to hallow us there,
Which, seek through the world, is ne'er met with elsewhere.
Home, home, sweet, sweet home!
There's no place like home, oh, there's no place like home!

An exile from home, splendor dazzles in vain;
Oh, give me my lowly thatched cottage again!
The birds singing gayly, that come at my call --
Give me them -- and the peace of mind, dearer than all!
Home, home, sweet, sweet home!
There's no place like home, oh, there's no place like home!

I gaze on the moon as I tread the drear wild,
And feel that my mother now thinks of her child,
As she looks on that moon from our own cottage door
Thro' the woodbine, whose fragrance shall cheer me no more.
Home, home, sweet, sweet home!
There's no place like home, oh, there's no place like home!

How sweet 'tis to sit 'neath a fond father's smile,
And the caress of a mother to soothe and beguile!
Let others delight mid new pleasures to roam,
But give me, oh, give me, the pleasures of home.
Home, home, sweet, sweet home!
There's no place like home, oh, there's no place like home!

CHORUS

To thee, I'll return, overburdened with care,
The heart's dearest solace will smile on me there.
No more from that cottage again will I roam,
Be it ever so humble, there's no place like home.

John Howard Payne: The Mastermind Behind the Melody

John Howard Payne, an American actor, playwright, and poet, penned the lyrics of "Home Sweet Home" in 1822. Born on June 9, 1791, in New York City, Payne showed early promise as a writer and performer. Throughout his career, he wrote numerous plays and contributed to the American theatrical scene. 

 His best-known works are Brutus, or, The Fall of Tarquin (1818), a verse tragedy, and Charles II, or, The Merry Monarch (1824), a comedy. He also wrote the libretto of the opera Clari, or, The Maid of Milan (1823), which contains the famous song “Home, Sweet Home.” The home that Payne wrote of was a little cottage in East Hampton, Long Island.  The song was first heard in London in his play "Clari" in 1823.  The air had appeared in an early collection of Bishop's as a Sicilian tune.  The theme of the song and the beauty of the melody have given it world-wide fame. However, it was his composition of "Home Sweet Home" that would secure his place in history.

The Song's Origin and Evolution

Payne originally wrote "Home Sweet Home" as part of a three-act opera titled "Clari, or the Maid of Milan." The song appeared in Act II and was performed by the character Clari, who expresses her longing for her homeland. Despite the opera's mixed reception, "Home Sweet Home" gained immense popularity in its own right, leading to its separation from the larger work and becoming a standalone piece.

"Home! Sweet Home!" is a song that has remained well-known for over 150 years. Adapted from American actor and dramatist John Howard Payne's 1823 opera Clari, Maid of Milan, the song's melody was composed by Englishman Sir Henry Bishop with lyrics by Payne. In the evening of May 8, 1823, at the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, London, Miss Maria Tree, a sister of the famous actress, Ellen Tree, gave voice to a song which thrilled the audience and since has reechoed in every heart in the English-speaking world as the song that better than any other expresses the sentiment of "home." The occasion was the first performance of "Clari, the Maid of Milan," a play by John Howard Payne, with musical numbers by Henry Rowley Bishop, and the song was "Home, Sweet Home " It was characteristic of the "homeless bard of home," that he was living in Paris, that his song was heard first in London, while the home he sang of was a little cottage in Easthampton, Long Island) in which he had not set foot since boyhood. The opening lines:
“Mid pleasures and palaces though we may roam,
Be it ever so humble, there's no place like home;”
have become famous. It is also used with Sir Henry Wood's Fantasia on British Sea Songs and in Alexandra Guilmant's Fantasy for organ , the Fantaisie sur deux mélodies anglaises, both of which also use "Rule, Britannia!". It also was characteristic of his fate that although "Home, Sweet Home" won a wealthy husband for the singer, and earned a small fortune for the theatre and the publisher, it left Payne little or no better off than he had been before. The song had that valuable theatrical quality professionally known as "thrills," but these did not extend to the author's pocketbook. He had sold "Clari" for a lump sum, had no interest in the publishing rights; while as to fame—the publisher did not even think it worth while to put Payne's name on the title-page!

Impact on American and British Culture

"Home Sweet Home" not only resonated with the American audience but also made a significant impact on British culture. The song's sentimentality struck a chord with British soldiers during the Crimean War, and it became an unofficial anthem for them. Its popularity endured through subsequent conflicts, including both World Wars, offering solace and a sense of familiarity to those serving far from home.

Cultural Adaptations and Legacy

Over the years, "Home Sweet Home" has been adapted and interpreted by countless artists and performers in various languages and musical styles. Its enduring popularity led to adaptations in operas, films, and stage productions, ensuring its continued presence in the cultural zeitgeist. The song remains a cherished piece of Americana and a symbol of longing for home.

A Global Sensation: The Widespread Popularity of the Song

"Home Sweet Home" captured the hearts of audiences across the globe, transcending cultural boundaries. Its universal theme of longing for one's homeland or a place of comfort struck a chord with people from all walks of life. The song's emotional resonance led to its rapid dissemination, and it became an enduring anthem of solace and nostalgia.

Conclusion

The captivating tale behind John Howard Payne's "Home Sweet Home" reveals the profound impact of a song that has resonated with countless individuals worldwide. Its timeless message of longing for home continues to evoke a sense of nostalgia and comfort. Through the years, "Home Sweet Home" has transformed into an emblem of our collective yearning for a place of belonging, reminding us of the enduring power of music to touch our souls.


References

The life and writings of John Howard Payne : Harrison, Gabriel, 1818-1902 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/cu31924022147932

Literary Criticism: Marxism in details- Althusser’s Ideology


Althusserian Ideology: Unveiling Power Structures in Literary Criticism

The Epistemological Break and Althusser's Theory of Ideology

Louis Althusser (1918-1990), French philosopher, is best known for his contributions to the debate over the origins and development of the theories of German philosopher Karl Marx. Althusser viewed Marx’s writings as having two distinct stages: an early humanistic or ideological period and a later scientific phase that culminated in the publication of DasKapital (1867; Capital, 1907-1909). Between these two stages, Althusser postulated the existence of what he called an epistemological break. With this term, he intended to show that developments in science do not emerge from gradual, piecemeal change, but are instead the result of sudden dislocations in knowledge where the entire framework of a theory is replaced.

Althusser's ideology, within the framework of Marxism, offers a distinct perspective on the analysis of literature and culture. Louis Althusser, a prominent French Marxist philosopher, developed his theory of ideology as a way to understand the workings of social and economic systems. In literary criticism, Althusser's ideas have been influential in examining how literature reflects and reinforces dominant ideologies.

The Role of Interpellation and Ideological State Apparatuses in Literary Representation

Central to Althusser's theory is the concept of ideology as a set of ideas and beliefs that shape an individual's understanding of the world and their place within it. According to Althusser, ideology is not merely a reflection of material conditions but plays an active role in maintaining social structures and relationships of power.

Althusser argues that ideology functions through interpellation or hailing, a process by which individuals are called upon and recognize themselves as subjects within a particular ideology. This means that ideology is not imposed from the outside but is internalized and incorporated into individuals' identities. In literature, this process can be seen through the representation of characters who embody and reproduce dominant ideologies.

Althusser's theory also emphasizes the concept of the ideological state apparatuses (ISAs), which are institutions and practices that reinforce and reproduce ideology within society. Examples of ISAs include educational institutions, religious organizations, media, and the family. In literature, these institutions can be seen as shaping the characters and their behaviors, as well as the broader social dynamics depicted in the text.

Althusser's Departure from Economic Determinism: The Concept of Relative Autonomy

Althusser's analysis of ideology in literature extends to the notion of the "subject supposed to know." This refers to the authority figures within a given ideology who are perceived as having special knowledge or expertise. In literature, characters such as wise mentors, religious leaders, or political figures can embody this role. Their authority reinforces the ideology and influences the actions and beliefs of other characters.

Furthermore, Althusser's concept of the "symptomatic reading" has implications for literary analysis. A symptomatic reading looks beyond the surface of a text to uncover the underlying contradictions and tensions within the dominant ideology. It seeks to expose how literature reflects and challenges the prevailing social order.

Althusser’s most important innovation was his rejection of the Marxian doctrine of strict economic determinism: the assertion that the economic system by which goods are produced determines the organization of society and therefore a society’s political and intellectual history. Marx further stated that this history invariably comprises struggles between the ruling class and the oppressed classes. Through his idea of relative autonomy, Althusser asserted that it was possible to study politics, law, and philosophy as activities independent of economic production. The result was the introduction of a more complex model of historical change into the Marxian scheme.

The Controversial Shift: Althusser's Antihumanism and the Scientific Character of Marxism

Althusser’s most controversial idea was that Marxism was not a moral philosophy concerned with the alienation of humankind under capitalism and its possible redemption under socialism, but rather that Marxism was a science and an “antihumanism.” The result of Althusser’s work, which was criticized by traditional Marxists, was to make Marxism seem less like a revolutionary program aimed at the liberation of humankind and more like a purely theoretical doctrine concerned with the conditions of scientific knowledge.

The view that the base determines the cultural superstructure is not seen by all because there are forces at work that prevent us from seeing that, for instance the liberal humanist view that we are essentially free. It is here that ideology works and makes us experience life in a certain way and also at the same time makes us believe that that way of seeing the world is natural. The French Marxist philosopher says that ideology works through ideological state apparatuses, which although they may have their own sub-ideology are all subjected to the ruling ideology. Althusser’s ideological state apparatuses include organized religion, the law, the political system, the educational system, in short all the institutions through which we are socialized. So, everything is pervaded by ideology. And while we believe we are acting out of our free will, we are in reality ‘acted by the system’. 

Althusser's ideology has been critiqued for its potential to downplay individual agency and for its focus on the reproduction of power structures. Critics argue that his framework neglects the potential for resistance and subversion within literature and culture.

Drawing on French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, Althusser says that the processes we go through when we grow up leave us forever incomplete. Aware of that deep lack and yearning for completion, we turn to ideology because it constantly ‘interpellates’ or addresses us as concrete subjects. It convinces us that we are whole and real and so we see what ideology makes us see, as belonging to the natural, harmonious order of things. Ideology makes us believe we are free agents and in that way makes us complicit in our own delusion.

Conclusion

In summary, Althusser's theory of ideology offers a way to analyze literature by examining how it reflects and perpetuates dominant ideologies. Through concepts such as interpellation, ISAs, and the subject supposed to know, Althusser provides tools for understanding the ways in which literature participates in shaping and reproducing social and economic systems. However, it is important to consider the limitations of Althusser's approach and to acknowledge the potential for alternative readings that highlight resistance and subversion within literature.


References

Reading Althusser : an essay on structural Marxism : Smith, Steven B., 1951- : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/readingalthusser00smit

Literary Criticism: Marxism in details


Analyzing Literature through a Marxist Lens: Unveiling Socioeconomic Dynamics

Karl Marx (1818-1883), German political philosopher and revolutionary, is the most important of all socialist thinkers and the creator of a system of thought called Marxism.

Karl Marx
In literature, however, Marxism is a sociological approach to literature that views works of literature or art as the products of historical forces that can be analyzed by looking at the material conditions in which they were formed. In Marxism, the base of a society, that is, the way in which its economy is organized determines its superstructure, which is everything related to culture, law, religion philosophy, art, literature etc.

Marxism, as a literary criticism approach, stems from the broader Marxist ideology developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the 19th century. Marxist literary criticism examines literature within the context of social and economic relations, focusing on how literature reflects and perpetuates the dominant class structure and power dynamics of a society.

In Marxist ideology, what we often classify as a world view (such as the Victorian age) is actually the articulations of the dominant class. Marxism generally focuses on the clash between the dominant and repressed classes in any given age. Major figures include Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Terry Eagleton, Fredric Jameson, Raymond Williams, Louis Althusser, Walter Benjamin, Antonio Gramsci, Georg Lukacs and Theordor Adorno, etc.

At its core, Marxism views literature as a product of the material conditions and class struggles of a given society. According to Marxists, the ruling class controls the means of production and exploits the working class, leading to social inequality and alienation. This perspective is applied to the analysis of literature, seeking to uncover the underlying social, economic, and political ideologies that shape literary texts.

Key Concepts in Marxist Literary Criticism:

Base and Superstructure: Marxists believe that society consists of two interconnected elements—the base (or economic structure) and the superstructure. The base refers to the material conditions of production, such as the mode of production and the relations of production. The superstructure encompasses institutions, ideologies, cultural practices, and literature. According to Marxism, the base influences and determines the superstructure, including literary works.

Class Struggle:

 Marxists emphasize the significance of class struggle in society. Literature is seen as reflecting and perpetuating this struggle, with the dominant class using literature to reinforce its position and justify its power. Marxists analyze how class relations and conflicts are portrayed in literature, and how characters and their interactions represent different social classes.

Ideology:

 Marxism views ideology as a set of beliefs, values, and ideas that serve the interests of the ruling class. Marxist literary criticism aims to uncover the dominant ideology conveyed in literary texts, exposing the hidden messages that support the status quo. It examines how literature can shape readers' understanding of social relations and influence their perception of reality.

Alienation:

 Marxists argue that capitalism leads to the alienation of the working class from their labor and from the products they create. Literary analysis from a Marxist perspective explores how alienation is represented in characters, settings, and themes, highlighting the dehumanizing effects of capitalism on individuals and society.

Historical Materialism:

 Marxist literary criticism employs historical materialism, which asserts that social, economic, and political structures evolve over time in response to material conditions. It examines how literature reflects the historical context in which it was produced, considering factors such as class struggles, industrialization, and social change.

Literature as Praxis:

 Marxist literary criticism advocates for literature to inspire social change and challenge the existing power structures. It encourages writers to expose class exploitation and inequality through their works and urges readers to critically engage with literature to gain insights into the oppressive nature of capitalism.

It's important to note that Marxist literary criticism has been subject to various interpretations and developments over time. Critics and scholars have applied Marxist principles to analyze a wide range of literary texts, from classical literature to contemporary works, seeking to uncover the underlying social and economic dynamics within them.


References

Marxism and literary history : Frow, John, 1948- : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/marxismliteraryh0000frow

1. Literary Criticism: Marxism in details
2. Literary Criticism: Marxist Literary Studies
3. Literary Criticism: Marxism in details- Althusser’s Ideology
4. Literary Criticism: Marxism- Gramsci’s Hegemony

Literary Criticism: Marxism- Gramsci’s Hegemony



Marxist Literary Criticism: Unraveling Hegemony through Gramsci's Perspective

Introduction:

Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937), Italian Communist Party leader and Marxist political theorist published as a journalist for the Socialist newspaper Avanti! (Forward!). Gramsci sought to chart a new course for the Socialists. During this period he worked closely with Palmiro Togliatti, who went on to serve as leader of the Italian Communist Party from 1926 to 1964. Togliatti and Gramsci joined forces with Umberto Terracini, who began publishing the leftist journal L’Ordine Nuovo (The New Order) in 1919. The three men tried to encourage workers to take over the factories in Turin, Italy's industrial capital. They argued that if the workers seized the factories and assumed management responsibilities, the workers could form factory councils that would help them acquire the political and technical sophistication necessary for achieving socialism. Socialist Party leaders condemned this approach as utopian and argued that the chief task for the radical left should be the overthrow of the state. Within the realm of Marxism, Antonio Gramsci's concept of hegemony adds a nuanced layer to this analysis. In this article, we will delve into the tenets of Marxist literary criticism, with a specific focus on Gramsci's notion of hegemony and its implications for understanding literature. 

Understanding Marxist Literary Criticism:

Marxist literary criticism is grounded in the fundamental principles of Marxism, pioneered by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. At its core, this approach recognizes literature as a product of the social and economic relations prevailing in a society. It contends that the ruling class, which controls the means of production, shapes and utilizes literature to reinforce its dominance and propagate its ideologies.

Gramsci's Concept of Hegemony:

Antonio Gramsci, an influential Marxist thinker of the 20th century, expanded upon the Marxist framework by introducing the concept of hegemony. Hegemony refers to the dominant group's ability to maintain and legitimize its power through the consent and active participation of subordinate groups. It operates through a complex system of social, cultural, and intellectual practices that establish the ruling class's worldview as the accepted norm.
Karl Marx
In Althusser, there is no room for autonomous or non ideological thought or action. However, with Italian Marxist, Antonio Gramsci, a modified concept came into being, that of hegemony. Hegemony is the domination of a set of beliefs and values through ‘consent’ rather than through coercive force. Under hegemonic conditions the majority of a nation’s citizens has so effectively internalized what the rulers want them to believe that they genuinely think that they are voicing their own opinion. However, there is always room for dissent. American Marxist critic Raymond Williams emphasized this aspect and expressed his view that the base completely determines the superstructure is too simple. From William’s perspective, ideology, hegemony and counter-hegemonic tendencies struggle with each other in literature and culture that are constantly in motion. Cultural Materialists follow Raymond.

Application of Gramsci's Hegemony to Literary Analysis:

When applied to literary criticism, Gramsci's concept of hegemony provides a lens through which we can analyze how literature functions as a vehicle for the dominant class's ideologies and interests. Literature, as part of the superstructure, plays a crucial role in shaping and maintaining hegemony. It reflects the dominant class's worldview, reinforces their values and beliefs, and creates a sense of common sense among readers.

Interrogating Power Relations:

Gramsci's concept of hegemony prompts us to critically examine power relations in literature. We analyze how characters, themes, and narratives either reinforce or challenge the existing social order. By scrutinizing the interactions between different social classes, we gain insights into the ways in which power is wielded and contested. This approach sheds light on the representation of class struggles, exploitation, and resistance within literary texts.

Unveiling Counter-Hegemonic Elements:

While literature often perpetuates hegemonic ideologies, it can also harbor counter-hegemonic elements. These elements challenge the dominant class's worldview and expose the contradictions and inequalities within society. Marxist literary criticism, influenced by Gramsci's ideas, seeks to identify and analyze these subversive elements. By doing so, it reveals the potential for resistance, social change, and the emergence of alternative perspectives within literature.

Literature as a Site of Struggle:

Viewing literature as a site of struggle aligns with Gramsci's belief that cultural production is a battleground for contesting hegemony. Writers and artists, conscious of their social role, can use literature as a means to challenge and subvert the dominant ideologies. Marxist literary criticism encourages the exploration of literature as praxis, where the act of reading and interpreting becomes a tool for understanding and transforming society.

Conclusion:

Marxist literary criticism, informed by Gramsci's concept of hegemony, offers a valuable framework for examining the intricate relationship between literature and power dynamics. By analyzing literature through this perspective, we uncover the ways in which dominant ideologies are reflected and challenged within literary texts. It encourages us to question and interrogate the social and political underpinnings of literature, ultimately facilitating a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between art, culture, and society.

References

Marxism and literary history : Frow, John, 1948- : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/marxismliteraryh0000frow

Antonio Gramsci : beyond Marxism and postmodernism : Holub, Renate, 1946- : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/antoniogramscibe0000holu

Literary Criticism: Marxist Literary Studies


 Marxist Literary Studies: Unveiling Power Dynamics in Literature

Introduction:

Marxist literary studies encompass a multifaceted approach to analyzing literature through the lens of Marxist theory. By examining the intricate relationship between literature and society, this critical framework delves into the power dynamics, social structures, and ideological underpinnings portrayed in literary works. In this article, we will explore the key concepts and methodologies of Marxist literary studies, highlighting their significance in uncovering the underlying socioeconomic dynamics within literature.

Understanding Marxist Literary Studies:

Marxist literary studies emerge from the broader Marxist ideology formulated by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. At its core, this approach views literature as a product of the material conditions and class struggles within a given society. It emphasizes the role of literature in perpetuating or challenging the dominant class structure and explores how literary texts reflect and shape social, economic, and political ideologies.

Analyzing Class Relations and Conflict:

Central to Marxist literary studies is the analysis of class relations and conflicts portrayed in literature. Marxist critics scrutinize characters, their interactions, and the overall narrative structure to discern the representation of social classes and the dynamics between them. Through this analysis, the unequal distribution of power, wealth, and resources within society becomes evident, exposing the exploitative nature of class systems.

Ideology and Cultural Hegemony:

Marxist literary studies also focus on the examination of ideology and cultural hegemony in literature. Ideology is viewed as a set of beliefs, values, and ideas that serve the interests of the ruling class. By analyzing literary works, Marxist critics aim to uncover the dominant ideology embedded within them, shedding light on how literature functions as a tool for reinforcing and legitimizing the prevailing social order.

Historical Materialism and Contextual Analysis:

A key methodology employed in Marxist literary studies is historical materialism. This approach asserts that social, economic, and political structures evolve over time in response to material conditions. Marxist critics examine literature within its historical context, considering factors such as class struggles, industrialization, and social change. By doing so, they uncover the ways in which literature reflects and responds to the broader historical and societal forces at play.

Alienation and Critique of Capitalism:

Marxist literary studies also address the theme of alienation, a concept deeply rooted in Marxist theory. By analyzing characters, settings, and themes, critics explore how literature represents the dehumanizing effects of capitalism and the alienation experienced by the working class. This critique of capitalism and its associated social structures aims to unveil the oppressive nature of such systems and provoke critical engagement with societal norms.

Literature as a Catalyst for Social Change:

Karl Marx

In Marxist literary studies, literature is not merely an object of analysis but also a potential catalyst for social change. Marxist critics advocate for literature that challenges the existing power structures and inspires readers to question and transform society. By exposing the contradictions and inequalities within the dominant ideologies, literature becomes a site of resistance and a vehicle for envisioning alternative possibilities.

Cultural Superstructure: Marxist Perspectives on Literature and Socioeconomic Determinism

Marxists differ on the extent to which the cultural superstructure is determined by the economic base. The so called ‘vulgar Marxists’ of the pre war period saw a direct cause effect relationship between the socio economic base and literature,  and saw the writer directly conditioned by his/her social class. Marxists are of the view that writers can never escape ideology and their social background so that the social reality of the writer will always be a part of the text.

Dialectical Interpretation of Literature beyond Political Views

Later in their readings of literary texts, they tried to see the text as independent of the author’s political views, however not separate the text from its social reality. This gave them a better picture of the real world of class conflicts and political tensions. This allowed Marxist critics to read the works of even the most reactionary writers against the grain of their political views, so that the bourgeois writers can also be appreciated from Marxist point of view. George Lukacs holds Balzac and Tolstoy in high regard, because it is only in their panoramic novels that the reader is confronted with the historical truth. The characters in their novels are to some extent independent of the author’s ideological convictions, and accurately reflect the historical reality.  These novels offer a total overview of all the social forces involved. For Marxists, such an approach which takes all parties and positions and their dynamic relationships into account and thereby allows a fuller understanding of the whole is dialectical.

Pierre Macherey's Approach to Literary Criticism

Another important reading is derived from Pierre Macherey’s A Theory of Literary Production. For Macherey, literary works are pervaded by ideology. So in order to get beyond a text’s ideological dimension, the reader has to begin with the cracks in the facade, the sites where the text is not fully in control.  In order to expose the ideology of a text, the interpreters must focus on what the text does not say, on what the text represses rather than expresses. It is only in the gaps, silences that the unarticulated is found. Thus, literature reveals the gaps in ideology. The text might be almost said to have an unconscious to which it has consigned what it cannot say because of ideological repression. (Effects of psychoanalysis). Macherey finds these gaps not in the dominant themes which are fully controlled by ideology, but in textual elements which are only tangentially related to the main theme/s.

Therefore it can be said that through the politics of the text –its ideological dimension, Marxist criticism addresses the politics of the outer world.

Conclusion:

Marxist literary studies provide a powerful framework for understanding and analyzing literature within the context of socioeconomic dynamics. By exploring class relations, ideology, historical materialism, and alienation, this critical approach sheds light on the complex interplay between literature and society. It invites readers and scholars to engage critically with literature, uncovering hidden power dynamics and envisioning a more just and equitable future.

NOTES:
  • Dialectical materialism - "the theory that history develops neither in a random fashion nor in a linear one but instead as struggle between contradictions that ultimately find resolution in a synthesis of the two sides. For example, class conflicts lead to new social systems"
  • Material circumstances - "the economic conditions underlying the society. To understand social events, one must have a grasp of the material circumstances and the historical situation in which they occur"
  • Reflectionism - associated with Vulgar Marxism - "a theory that the superstructure of a society mirrors its economic base and, by extension, that a text reflects the society that produced it"
  • Superstructure - "The social, political, and ideological systems and institutions--for example, the values, art, and legal processes of a society--that are generated by the base" 

References

Marxism and literary history : Frow, John, 1948- : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/marxismliteraryh0000frow

Antonio Gramsci : beyond Marxism and postmodernism : Holub, Renate, 1946- : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/antoniogramscibe0000holu

Trends in Modern English Drama


Shaping the Stage: Evolving Trends in Modern English Drama

Introduction


If the twentieth century has been a period of literary revolutions, this is particularly noticeable in the realm of drama. So varied and so conflicting are the changes as and the trends, that if we search for one single epithet to apply to the modern stage, we are forced in the end to select the adjective ‘electric’. During the Elizabethan, the Restoration, and other periods there was, no doubt considerable diversity in influences from without and in the flow of native theatrical currents, but when these are compared with corresponding conditions in the period between 1990 and 1990, they will inevitably appear simple and orderly. The chief trends may however be categorized as the realistic social drama, drama employing the comic and the fantastic, poetic drama, and finally the cluster involving angry plays, absurd plays and menace plays.

In modern English drama, several trends have emerged that reflect the evolving nature of the art form. These trends encompass various themes, styles, and techniques employed by playwrights to engage audiences and explore contemporary issues. Here are some notable trends in modern English drama:

Realism and Social and Political Commentary

Realism remains a prominent trend in modern English drama. Playwrights strive to depict ordinary life and society with authenticity, emphasizing believable characters, settings, and dialogue. This approach aims to reflect the reality of human experiences and address social and political issues. Naturally, Modern English drama often serves as a platform for social and political commentary. Playwrights address issues such as identity, race, gender, class, and power dynamics, using theater as a means of raising awareness and fostering dialogue about contemporary societal challenges.

During the opening decades of the century the social drama takes first place. In 1906 appeared "The Silver Box," and with this play Galsworthy made the realistic social drama popular. Heroism comedy and fantasy are done away with. In "The Silver Box" a drunken young gentleman and an unemployed laborer are both involved in what are technically ‘thefts’ but only the latter are punished. In "Justice" the machinery of justice ruins a clerk who is trying to rehabilitate himself after a prison sentence. In "Strife" he gives a disturbing picture of the bitterness resulting from a strike at a tin factory. The suffering that weighs on the starving men and their families is forcefully brought home. Galsworthy’s compassion, his sensitivity to suffering and his sympathy for the underdog makes his message a compelling one.

 Harley Greenville Barker, like Galsworthy wrote such realistic plays on social problems as "Waste" and "The Madras House." In these plays a dominant social problem for the theme, but Granville Barker differs from Galsworthy in his attempt to analyze the sentiments and passions of his characters. There were other realistic plays such as Mansfield’s "The Tragedy of Man" which is tragic in its imparted Haskin’s "The Return of the Prodigal." But perhaps the best of contemporary realistic tragedies is J.M. Synge’s "Riders to the Sea" which is a play grant in its majestic simplicity. This also began the trend of one act realistic dramas.

By far the biggest revolution of 20th century English drama was ushered in by George Bernard Shaw who started as an Ibsen-idolator and as an exponent of realism. Influenced by continental realistic playwrights, but only to a certain degree, he deliberately deviated from the realistic naturalistic cult of his contemporaries. A social propagandist and a man of ideas he was an almost impish creature constantly bubbling over with a sense of fun which constantly seeks to express in dramatic terms. The originality of his drama is not that he deals with social ideas but that he employs the comic, the fantastic and historical to express them. His chief weapons are the delight which ideas province and the shock which they often give. 

Another dramatist, Shaw writing a drama on the theme of "Mrs. Warren’s Profession" would have offered much pathos and plenty of sentimentalism. Shaw declares that sentimentalism itself lies at the root of evil. In "Arms and the man" the chocolate soldier becomes the hero and in "Candida" the heroine decides to stay with the weaker man who is not the effeminate aesthetic young poet but the vigorous and self opinionated preacher. In "Caesar and Cleopatra," Cleopatra is a kittenish girl tyrannized by an old nurse, and Caesar himself is a puzzled gentleman. In "Man and Superman "the woman is revealed as the huntress and Don Juan Janner is her poor victim. In this most famous of Shaw’s play Janner is ultimately captured and Ann marries him even as he protests that he is not a happy man, the play is also full of fantastic elements for Janner and Straker land in hell, where Janner becomes Don Juan, the preacher of the intellectual philosophy of life.

 Another dramatist who shows people in unreal situations is Sir Jame Barrie. In the "Admirable Crichton'' the playwright takes what seems to be a fairly normal aristocratic household and imagines them on a desert island. Lord Loam is the symbol of the ‘family and Crichton’, the impeccable butler. In the desert Lord Loan and his aristocratic relatives prunes themselves completely incapable of dealing with the new situation. Crichton alone shows himself capable of alimentiveness. He performs everything and in doing these he becomes the aristocratic and the others accept him as the master.

In "The Ferryman" by Jez Butterworth, the play explores a family's struggles during the Troubles in Northern Ireland, portraying complex relationships and political tensions with authenticity. In Caryl Churchill's "Top Girls," the play critiques gender inequality and the sacrifices women make for success in a male-dominated world.

Poetic Drama

The first half of the 20th century even in the midst of the trend towards realism developed a new kind of verse drama. Stephen Phillips began to write poetic tragedies such as "Herod and Ulysses." The effect of Japanese no plays may be traced in Mansfield’s "The faithful" which is full of lyrical imagination. Yeats furthered the cause of poetic drama with his heroic cycle of Cuchulain and Conchubar in "On Baile’s Strand." In "Deirdre King Cochubar lures back Deirdre and her husband with a promise of forgiveness but treacherously murders him. Lascelles Abercrombie wrote such poetic plays as "The End of the World" and "Phoenix" which are unlike Yeats' plays, associated with common reality.

It is however T S Eliot who really marks the climax of the resurgent poetic drama. His study of the martyrdom of St. Thomas a Becket at the instigation of Henry II is more than a historical play. The struggle between church and state reflects the conflict between the spiritual and the temporal that becomes part of human experience.It is a really stunning production of The "Murder in the Cathedral." "The Family Reunion" is a study of complex psychologies. The confidential clerk presents the need for self knowledge, for openness of understanding and for commitment of the will. Christopher Fry who wrote "The Boy with a Cart" and "Venus Observed" and Auden who wrote "The Dog Beneath the Skin" are the other contemporary verse dramatists.

Postmodernism

 Playwrights challenge traditional narrative structures and experiment with unconventional techniques. In Tom Stoppard's "Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead," the play reimagines Shakespeare's "Hamlet" from the perspective of two minor characters, using absurdist elements and self-reflexivity.

Diversity and Inclusion

 Playwrights incorporate diverse perspectives to promote inclusivity. In Inua Ellams' "Barber Shop Chronicles," the play explores the lives of African men through conversations in barbershops across different cities, highlighting the richness and complexity of their experiences.

Hybridity and Fusion

 Playwrights blend different theatrical styles and genres. In Sarah Kane's "Blasted," the play combines elements of realism, surrealism, and shocking violence to depict the brutal effects of war and human cruelty.

Environmental and Global Issues

 English drama reflects concerns about the environment and global challenges. In Lucy Kirkwood's "The Children," the play explores the aftermath of a nuclear disaster, examining themes of responsibility, guilt, and the impact of human actions on future generations.

Technology and Multimedia Integration

 Playwrights incorporate multimedia elements to enhance storytelling. In Simon Stephens' "The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time," the play uses projections, lighting, and sound design to immerse the audience in the mind of an autistic protagonist.

Deconstruction of Gender and Identity

 Playwrights challenge traditional notions of gender and identity. In "Hir" by Taylor Mac, the play explores the disruption of gender norms within a dysfunctional family, questioning societal expectations and celebrating the freedom of self-expression.

Immersive and Interactive Theater

 Playwrights create immersive experiences that engage the audience. In "Sleep No More" by Punchdrunk, the play takes place in a multi-floor, interactive set, allowing the audience to freely explore and interact with the actors, creating a unique and personal theatrical encounter.

Absurdism and Existentialism

 Existentialist and absurdist themes continue to be explored in modern English drama. Playwrights delve into the human condition, the search for meaning, and the absurdity of existence, often employing dark humor and unconventional narratives.  Absurd drama, a late 20th century kind of play is a kind of drama which holds that the human condition is essentially absurd and that this condition can be represented only in works that are themselves absurd. In such plays there is a complete divorce between man and his life, the actor and his setting Becket Pinter and Albee are the most famous practitioners of this genre. In Beckett’s "Waiting for Godot" the two characters wait for a person whose identity, purpose or day of arrival are totally unknown. In "Happy Days" there is a complete breakdown of communication between the husband and the wife, both of whom are gradually buried in the sand.

Conclusion

These trends in modern English drama demonstrate the vitality and diversity of the art form, showcasing the evolving nature of theater and its ability to reflect and engage with contemporary society.

  Ardhendu De  (updated 17/8/2016)

Modern poetic drama : Thouless, Priscilla : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/modernpoeticdram0000unse

A History Of English Drama 1660 1900 : Allardyce Nicoll : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.58964

Theory and Criticism: Aristotle :Characteristics of an Aristotelian Plot



Analyzing Aristotle's Theory: Key Elements of an Aristotelian Plot

Tragedy: Aristotle’s definition of Tragedy

Aristotle’s definition of Tragedy- is an imitation of an action, serious complete and of a certain magnitude, in a language beautified in different parts with different kinds of embellishment, through action and not narration  and through scenes of pity and fear bringing about  the ‘catharsis’ of these emotions.Read More Criticism

Characteristics of an Aristotelian Plot:

1) Differentiates Between Plot and Story

Tragedy is a representation of action and action consists of incidents and events. Aristotle differentiates between plot and story, and says that it is better for the poet to choose a traditional story taken from history, mythology and legends for such stories are familiar and easy to understand. After selecting the story, the artist must then go on to the process of selection and ordering, when only relevant incidents and situations are to be selected and arranged such that they seem to follow each other logically. This is the plot of the story.

2) A Complete Whole

Next, the tragic plot must be a complete whole that is it must have a beginning, middle and an end. By beginning, Aristotle meant that the incident must not flow from a previous situation, and if it does, that situation must be made known to the audience through the chorus, soliloquy etc. Read More Criticism Middle is everything that follows from the beginning and it is followed by the catastrophe. The End is consequent upon a given situation and is not followed by any further incident. Thus, wholeness implies the linking of the various incidents and situations that form the plot.

3) Size of the Plot: Length and Complexity 

By magnitude, Aristotle meant the size of the plot, which should be neither too long (beginning will be forgotten by the audience), nor too short (the different parts will not be clearly distinguishable from each other). It should be long enough to allow the process of change from happiness to misery initiated by the beginning to be developed. Read More Criticism It means that the plot should have order, logic and symmetry. Aristotle believed that a well-crafted plot should have a certain length and complexity to achieve its desired impact. He suggested that a plot should be long enough to allow for proper development of characters and themes but not excessively long to avoid dilution of its impact.

4) Plot and Subplot

It follows that the plot should be an organic whole, such that there must be only one tragic action, and every incident must be connected to the rest of the action, so that there is no incident that is irrelevant. There may be episodes, but they must be properly integrated to the plot such that it is not possible to remove them without causing injury to the plot.

5) Laws of Probability and Necessity

Next, Aristotle couples organic unity of a plot with probability and necessity, that is, the action of the tragedy must be possible according to laws of probability and necessity. Read More Criticism The plot is not tied to what has actually happened but what is possible under the given circumstances. Next, the words and actions must be the necessary outcome of the character of a dramatic personage. And, also, the tragic action must be convincing and credible.

6) The Three Unities: 

Unity of action:
The plot should be an organic whole, such that there must be only one tragic action, and every incident must be connected to the rest of the action, so that there is no incident that is irrelevant. There may be episodes, but they must be properly integrated to the plot such that it is not possible to remove them without causing injury to the plot. Aristotle was against the introduction of a sub plot, similarly he is against a double ending, e.g. a tragic comedy and the introduction of comic relief. Acc to him such plurality of action and double ends distract attention and weaken the tragic effect.Read More Criticism
Unity of Time- Although Aristotle mentions nothing about the Unity of time, it does seem to be derived from him. Aristotle said that the action of the tragedy, as far as possible should remain within one revolution of the sun. Neo classic critics explained this as that the spectators would not believe in the reality of an action that compressed several days into a three hour drama. Neo classicists also believed that for verisimilitude there should be an exact correspondence between the time of the dramatic action and the time of the events being imitated, so that a play lasting three hours would depict events that took only three hours to work themselves out. 
Unity of Place too does not find any explicit mention in Aristotle, although when comparing Epic to Tragedy, he says that the epic may narrate several actions taking place simultaneously at several places, but this is not possible in tragedy which does not narrate but represents through action. Unity of Place and Unity of Time are of no importance and with Dr Johnson’s criticism, they have died out.

7) Kinds of plots

Simple plots are those in which the action moves forward but without peripeteia (reversal of fortune) and Anagnorisis (recognition of truth). Complex plots are those where the change of fortune is accompanied by peripeteia or anagnorisis or both. Read More Criticism The peripeteia and anagnorisis must arise from the arrangement of the plot so that it appears necessary or probable.

8) Elements of a plot:

Peripeteia

or reversal of fortune takes place when the course of events take an opposite turn than intended, the change being also probable or necessary.  (eg: when a man tells Oedipus about his mother)

Recognition

Another crucial element of an Aristotelian plot is anagnorisis, which refers to the moment of recognition or discovery. The protagonist should gain insight or knowledge that changes their understanding of the situation, leading to a crucial turning point in the plot. This recognition can be either positive or negative, but it should evoke an emotional response from the audience.Read More Criticism The best sort of recognition is accompanied by peripeteia, as seen in Oedipus. Recognition may be caused by a) visible signs, eg, birthmarks, b) those manufactured by the poet, by not what the plot demands, c)is by the means of memory, that is when awareness is roused by seeing something, d) is recognition on the basis of reasoning, e) that arises from actions alone with the surprise developing through a series of likelihood.

Pathos

an act involving destruction or pain, eg death on the stage, or physical agonies and wounding etc.

Characterization

With respect to character, there are four things that a poet must aim at:
a) The character must be morally good, that is the he makes a moral choice,
b) The characters represented should be suitable, i.e., if the character represented is brave it is not suitable for a woman to be brave in this way,
c) The characters should be life like that is they must be true to life and have the same likes and dislikes, weakness and virtues, joys and sorrows like average humanity. Only such likeness will arouse pity,
d) The characters should be consistent.Read More Criticism

Since tragedy is an imitation of people better than are found in the world, the poet ought to make the characters life like but at the same time represent them as better than they are. Even if the characters are irascible, lazy and morally deficient in some ways, they must nevertheless be good.

The Ideal Tragic Hero

The function of tragedy is to evoke emotions of pity and fear, and from this Aristotle deduces the qualities of his tragic hero. He says that the tragic hero should not be too good or perfect, for the fall of a perfectly good man from happiness to misery would only shock and disgust. Read More Criticism Similarly, the fall of a wicked person would not evoke tragic feelings. Therefore, a tragic hero must be a man not pre-eminently virtuous and just, whose misfortune is brought upon him not by vice or depravity but by some error in judgment.

The misfortune of the tragic hero is brought about by some fault of his own, which is called hamartia or some error in judgment that he commits. Hamartia may arise from any of the following ways: it may arise from ignorance of the facts, or it may arise out of error from hasty and careless decisions, or third, it may be voluntary, though not deliberate, as acts committed in anger or passion. Read More Criticism
Another trait of the tragic hero is that he must be a person who occupies a position of eminence in society.

 Function of Tragedy: Catharsis

Aristotle writes that the function of tragedy is to arouse emotions of pity and fear in the audience and through this affect the catharsis of these emotions. In Greek, catharsis has three meanings: purgation, purification and clarification. Catharsis refers to the purging or cleansing of emotions, particularly pity and fear. Aristotle believed that a well-structured plot should evoke catharsis in the audience.  By witnessing the protagonist's struggles and ultimate fate, the audience experiences a release of these emotions, leaving them with a sense of emotional satisfaction and intellectual contemplation.

A Few Questions on Aristotle’s Critical concept:

1. What is the difference between Aristotle and Plato’s conceptions of literature and art?
2. Why did Plato feel literature and art to be a dangerous social and political force?
3. How did Aristotle help to create the field of literary theory?
4. How did Aristotle conceptualize the proper form of tragedy?

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