FUNDAMENTAL GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY : PGT , TGT and Other Competitive Examinations


FUNDAMENTAL GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY : TET, SSC ETC

1. Using suitable words from the list --( horde, mob, crowd, gang, band, group, company, squad,crew, team

Ans- (a) During the riots the mob got out of control and police were forced to open fire.

(b) The sergeant major was drilling a company of soldier’s on the aquarium.

(c)Although they defended themselves bravely, they could not keep off the horde of Indians that attacked then in thousands.

(d) The crowd that watched the football match broke in to groups on leaving the field.

(e) The aeroplane crew could see the gang of robbers rushing away to hide in the forests.

(f) The hoarder/band of workmen soon had the new piece railway track lay.

2. Arrange the words in the two lists so as to make pairs.

A                    B

1. Pelican 1.orchaed

2. Crapes 2. Oil

3. Fruit trees 3. Case

4. Cricket 4.tannery

5. Barrel 5. Mint

6. Coal 6. Crossing

7. Leather 7. Rod

8. Spectacles 8. Vineyard

9. Angler 9. Pitch

10. Money 10. Scuttle

Ans- 1_______6 /2_______8/ 3_______1/4________9/ 5_______2/6_______10/

7________4/ 8_______3/ 9_______7/10_______5

The Conformity of Tom Jones with Fielding’s Theory of the Novel


Fielding was essaying in the art of the novel when the genre was yet in its incipient stage and Fielding can therefore be called a pioneer. More than anybody else Fielding himself was aware of his role in the evolution of his genre and although he disclaims the title of a pure divine tyrant, he asserts his independence about being ‘founder’:
As I am in reality, the founder of a new province of writing,   So I am at liberty to make what laws I please there in.  And there laws, my readers, whom I consider my subject, Are bound to believe in and obey………[Book II Tom Jones]

It is in the preface to Joseph Andrews that Fielding points out the true nature of his creation ‘a comic epic in prose. He distinguishes it from many other genres including history, serious romance, and comedy, burlesque and heroic romances. It is different from history in that it does not imitate the ‘painful and voluminous historian’ as also in that it often admits of ‘chasms’ in the history. It is distinct from the serious romance in that the comic and the fable and action world ‘light and ridiculous’ instead of serious and dignified. Further, the characters in such a comic epic would be of ‘inferior rank and consequently of inferior manners’. In its sentiments and distinction, too, 'it preserves the ludicrous instead of the sublime’. The comic again differs from comedy just as the serious epic differs from the tragedy, that is, in its range and scope. Its action is more extended and comprehensive and contains a larger variety of characters. But although such a genre is a ‘comic’ from of the elevated epic, this does not imply a burlesque and the unnatural. While the ‘comic’ is strictly confined to the ‘just imitation of nature’, this also constitutes its difference from the heroic romance? While proceeds beyond the ‘realm of probability’ it is significant that all of Fielding’s novels like the ‘domestic’ novella Amelia – Joseph Andrews, Jonathan Wild and Tom Jones are comic epics.

Henry Fielding’s Tom Jones as a Picaresque Novel: ‘comic – epic in prose’


"Heroes, notwithstanding the high Ideas, which by the Means of Flatterers they may entertain of themselves, or the World may conceive of them, have certainly more of Mortal than Divine about them. However elevated their Minds may be, their Bodies at least (which is much the major Part of most) are liable to the worst Infirmities, and subject to the vilest Offices of human Nature. Among these latter the Act of Eating, which hath by several wise Men been considered as extremely mean and derogatory from the Philosophic Dignity, must be in some Measure performed by the greatest Prince, Heroe, or Philosopher upon Earth; nay, sometimes Nature hath been so frolicksome as to exact of these dignified Characters, a much more exorbitant Share of this Office, than she hath obliged those of the lowest Order to perform."- Tom Jones by Henry Fielding

Although Fielding called his novel a ‘comic – epic in prose’, the epithet of ‘picaresque’ would be equally justified. This, of course, does not contradict Fielding’s own claim, for the picaresque is in many ways related to comic epic, the picaresque novel being epical in scope and comic in nature. Generally speaking, the picaresque novel as derived from the Spanish word for ‘rogue’, picaro, is concerned with the life story of a clever and musing adventures who proceeds by tricks and roguery through a series of adventures. The picaresque fiction which had its origin in Greek and Latin word literature as in the case of Odysseus , the hero Homer’s Odyssey who was driven around the known world by the wrath of the god Poseidon just as Tom is driven about England by his fate. Fielding’s great master was the Spanish write Cervantes. Cervantes’ Don Quixote had appeared almost century earlier, and another novel in the same picaresque tradition, The Adventures of Gil Blas of Santillane by Alain Lesage had appeared about a decade before Fielding’s Tom Jones. A picaresque novel has in addition to a roguish hero, long journeys an episodic structure, and realistic lowlife descriptions.

Indo-Anglican Fiction of the Post-Independence Era


"After independence, the Indo-Anglican writer of fiction is more self-confident than ever before. These are a sudden widening of the horizons and a keener and deeper interest in the history of our people and country. Again and again we find a conflict of ideologies raging in the minds of our post independence novelist. Whereas poverty, hunger, death and disease form the key notes of symphony, movements like humanitarianism, socialism and liberalism spot-light the finer and the more sublime aspects of their dreams for the future. The post-independence novelist seems to stand between the two worlds-one dead, the other yet to be born. It is difficult to predict the course of this novel, though it is full of potentialities which may be vital to the nation as a whole." (The  Cambridge History of English Literature)

The fiction writers in this era are not in large number. A sparkling writer is Sudhin Ghose with his three books And Gazelles Leaping, Cradle of the Clouds and Vermillion Boat. Read More History of English Literature ( Essay) He is a new current tongue of colour, vitality and warmth, a close to life. He, indeed, has translated a country. The other fiction writer in English is Bhabani Bhattacharya whose novel Music For Mohini and  So Many Hungers have proved greatly successful with the result they have been translated in to various European languages.

Tiresias in "The Waste Land": Central Figure and Interested Spectator of the Modern Waste Land


Introduction: Tiresias: The central figure: 

Tiresias, according to T. S. Eliot is the central figure in "The Waste Land"(who appears in the poem's third section, "The Fire Sermon"), an interested spectator of the modern waste land and, what Tiresias sees is the substance of the whole poem. In T.S. Eliot's "The Waste Land" he is seen as a symbol of transformation and renewal. Eliot's use of Tiresias in the poem represents the cyclical nature of life and the possibility of rebirth from the ruins of the past. The significance of Tiresias is complex and varied. Historically he is connected with the story of King Oedipus of Thebes, which is clearly  demonstrable to the classical legend of a waste land, with striking resemblance to the drought infested, sin – ridden kingdom of the medieval Fisher King. 
The way the introduction of Tiresias serves complicates the unethical frame of the poem and universalizes its central significance by bringing home to us that the sin involved in the violation of the sublimity of sex has in all ages and countries led to decay and degeneration, and the necessity of purifying the sinner’s soul through suffering as the sole way to salvation. Tiresias is a blind prophet who appears in the Greek tragedy, "Oedipus Rex" by Sophocles. He is instrumental in revealing the truth about Oedipus' identity as well as the cause of the city's plague. Oedipus unwittingly kills his father and marries his own mother and thus calls down upon his supposedly innocent heads the curse of the gods in the form of a virulent plague, epidemic and destruction, which neither king nor commoner fails to regard as a punishment for some dark and hidden crime. Tiresias, the blind prophet, is summoned and when compelled by the king tells the socking truth that he, the king himself, is the plague – spot. Such is the conspiracy of circumstances that the king is slowly, but irresistibly driven to the realization of this horrible truth. Nothing remains for the king but the duty of expiation, self mutilation, self exile, self-abasement and a prolonged penance, which eventually result in spiritual calm and inner illumination. 

Development of English Essays from Francis Bacon to Joseph Addison


An essay is a short composition in prose. Saintsbury calls it "a work of prose arts." Dr. Johnson defines it as "a loose sally of the mind, an irregular, undigested piece, not a regular and orderly performance." There are various types of essays: personal ones that give the author's own experiences, impressions, or reactions; aphoristic ones that provide impersonal reflections on wisdom and philosophy; periodical ones that are published in dailies, weeklies, or monthlies, discussing contemporary social or political problems, etc. Now let us examine the different stages of its development in English, particularly from Francis Bacon (1561-1626) to Joseph Addison (1672-1719). (Renaissance/ Elizabethan essays--> Restoration essays--> Augustan essays)

To trace the history of the English Essay we shall have to go back to the Elizabethan Age, The miscellaneous work of a few University wits like Lyly, Greene, Lodge, and Nashe has some traces of novel. It has also the first anticipation of the Essay. Apologia For Poetries of Sir Philip Sidney has a semblance of essay though in uncertain style.

Francis Bacon
The essay in its real from came in to existence in England in 1597 with the publication of a short series of essays by Francis Bacon. There is in his essays aphoristic touch, sentence toils wisdom, and astute expediency. After Bacon Sir William Cornwallis tried to write in the Aphoristic style, But he failed to reach thou heights. He had little in common with Bacon. Ben Jonson the great poet and dramatist was also a renowned critic of his time. His prose work is a [ice of first rate criticism. The most important name after Bacon in the realm of essay writing is that of Abraham Cowley. He is an important connecting link between Bacon and Addison. The defects of Bacon were remedied by Cowley. While Bacon’s essays are aphoristic and impersonal, Cowley’s essays have intimate and personal thought which characterizes the true essay. Cowley cultivated a from of essay more intimate and confidential, though less profound, less rightly and philosophical than the Balconies. After Abraham lowly comes in the age of modern English prose. However, much had transpired in the field of Essay between Bacon and Cowley before the modern prose came in to existence. A host of character-writers emerged on the literary scene whose contribution to the English Essay in on less important, therefore, it does deserve a bright mention.

 Joseph Hall, Sir Thomas Overbury and John Earle are of the first rank among the  character writers. Hall wrote in a satirical and pungent style. Overbury wrote in a hopelessly artificial style. Instead of being content with the superficiality of the character like Overbury, Earle thrived to penetrate in to the depths of the character. Overbury's  character sketches are the direct fore-runners to sir Roger and the whole group of personal belonging to the Spectators Club. Sir Thomas Browne, another important name in the history of essay writing, has Religion Medici, A classic in prose in his account.
 
Then come the Restoration prose which marks the real moment of the birth of our modern English prose. The notable names of the are Locke, Temple, Halifax and Dryden of these, the last is the most important. He is not only the first great modern prose writer but also a pioneer of eroticism. His prose writing consists of mainly essay and prefaces. His Essay of pragmatic Poesie (1669) is a major piece of literary criticism in the language. Direct and fluent in style, prickled shows keen critical perception. His other works include Essay on satire, Essay on Epic poetry and Preface  to Fables. Dryden’s prose, indeed, marks a definite progress in the development, and never stilted. It’s the first example of modern English prose.

So finally, the 18th century witnessed a remarkable period of literary growth and cultural enlightenment in England, often referred to as the "Augustan Age." During this era, two prominent figures, Joseph Addison and Richard Steele, emerged as influential writers, journalists, and essayists. Their collaborative efforts in creating the literary masterpiece known as "The Spectator" significantly impacted the landscape of English literature, shaping the development of the periodical essay and leaving an indelible mark on subsequent generations. The periodicals nurtures a. Moral and Social Observations, b. The Creation of Memorable Characters and c. The Promotion of Women's Writing.

Their work in "The Spectator," a daily publication running from 1711 to 1712, revolutionized the way readers consumed literature. Launched in 1709 by Richard Steele, The Tatler , another periodical presented a unique blend of news, commentary, and social observations in the form of essays.  By providing insightful and witty commentary on various social, moral, and political issues, the duo captured the imagination of the English public and set a new standard for literary journalism.  Through their essays, they explored the manners, customs, and foibles of their contemporaries, shedding light on the intricacies of human behavior.  Addison and Steele also  introduced a host of fictional characters in their essays. These characters, such as Sir Roger de Coverley, Will Honeycomb, and Mr. Spectator, provided readers with relatable personalities and served as vehicles for exploring various aspects of society. Addison and Steele notably played a significant role in advancing gender equality in the literary world and paving the way for future female writers.

In conclusion, the development of English essays from Francis Bacon to Joseph Addison represents a significant evolution in literary expression. Bacon's emphasis on logic and reasoning laid the groundwork for the exploration of ideas, while Addison's contribution to the periodical essay introduced a more refined and entertaining form of social commentary. Together, their works established a foundation for future generations of essayists, shaping the landscape of English literature. The commitment to wit, humor, and moral instruction sprouted during this era can be seen in the works of esteemed authors like Samuel Johnson, Charles Lamb, and William Hazlitt. Furthermore, their emphasis on social commentary and the exploration of human nature laid the groundwork for the development of the novel as a dominant literary form.

Prominent Essayists of that Era Under Discussion:

👉Francis Bacon:
  • Bacon's essays are characterized by their concise and aphoristic style, covering a wide range of topics.
  • He emphasized the practical application of knowledge and the pursuit of truth through observation and reasoning.
👉Abraham Cowley:
  • Cowley was a poet and essayist known for his metaphysical poetry and prose works.
  • His essays encompassed diverse subjects, including literature, politics, and philosophy, displaying wit and intellectual depth in his writing.
👉John Dryden:
  • Dryden's essays focused on literary criticism, discussing various genres and analyzing the works of his contemporaries.
  • He advocated for a more refined and polished style of writing, promoting clarity and elegance in literature.
👉Joseph Hall:
  • Hall's essays focused on moral and religious themes, offering practical advice and insights into human nature.
  • His works, such as "Three Centuries of Meditations and Vowes, Divine and Morall," displayed a devout and contemplative approach to life.
👉Sir Thomas Overbury:
  • Overbury's essays were characterized by their wit and satirical tone, often providing commentary on courtly life and manners.
  • His most famous work essayistic poem, "A Wife," offered humorous and astute observations on marriage and relationships.
👉John Earle:
  • Earle's essays, collected in his work "Microcosmographie," provided witty and concise character sketches of various types of people.
  • His keen observations captured the nuances of human behavior and societal roles.
👉Sir Thomas Browne:
  • Browne's essays, particularly in his work "Religio Medici," delved into religious and philosophical inquiries.
  • His writing showcased a blend of skepticism and deep spiritual introspection, exploring the mysteries of existence.
👉John Locke:
  • Locke's essays, notably "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding," discussed topics related to epistemology and the nature of knowledge.
  • His works laid the foundation for empiricism and influenced the development of modern philosophical thought.
👉Sir William Temple:
  • Temple's essays covered a wide range of subjects, including politics, literature, and gardening.
  • His writing displayed a combination of wit, wisdom, and practical insights, offering commentary on contemporary issues.
👉George Savile, 1st Marquess of Halifax:
  • Halifax's essays, known as "The Character of a Trimmer," focused on political philosophy and the importance of moderation.
  • His works advocated for a balanced approach to governance and highlighted the dangers of extreme ideologies.
👉Richard Steele:
  • Steele was a prominent essayist and co-founder of "The Spectator", a popular periodical.
  • Launched in 1709 by Richard Steele, "The Tatler" presented a unique blend of news, commentary, and social observations in the form of essays. 
  • His essays addressed social issues, manners, and morality, often using humor and satire to highlight societal flaws.
👉Joseph Addison:
  • Addison's essays in "The Spectator" were influential in shaping the periodical essay form.
  • He explored a wide range of topics, including literature, politics, and social customs, with a refined and eloquent writing style.

Digest:

👀The development of English essays during this period marked a shift towards more structured and formal writing.
👀The essays focused on a variety of subjects, blending personal experiences, social commentary, and philosophical insights.
👀They played a significant role in shaping public opinion and promoting intellectual discourse in 18th-century England.
Ref: 
1.ALBERT. (2000). History of English Literature (Fifth Edition) [English]. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
2.A short history of English literature : Saintsbury, George, 1845-1933 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofen00sain
 
  


Raja Rao’s Contribution to Fiction: Critical Assessment


It is significant coincidence that Mulk Raj Anand, R.K. Narayan, and Raja Rao, the three major writers of the Indian novel in English, belonged to the thirties of the twentieth century. Their prolific literary output defined the Gandhian dream of India. Their bland of political ideology and social realism ensured that the English prose fiction would be the medium for the definition of a new Indian and aspiration. We will now carry a few sketches of Raja Rao’s life and literary outputs.

Raja Rao belongs to an ancient Brahmin family of Mysore. He receives his early education from Muslin from Aligarh Muslim University Raja Rao has been familiar with variety of languages Kannada, Telugu, Urdu, English and even French etc. His wide learning and the discovery of the mantra of true in the classical literature of ancient India lead him as a creative artist.

 Raja Rao imitates his writing carver in knead, but the work that makes people take note of his is his first novel in English Kanthapura  (1938),which is about the Gandhi an Satyagraha movement in a south India village. The author introduces parallels to characters and events drawn from Ramayana. Mahatma Gandhi’s story is projected as a sthala-purana i.e., the mythic tale of a particular place. The three levels of action political, social and religious-present a unified concept of panda. The action belongs to the decade of the 1930’s when the Indian National congress committee spread the Gandhian message of Satyagraha and Ahimsa through the length and breadth of India. The villagers of Kanthapura also follow these principles. They take out protest marches towards the coffee Estate and suffer harsh treatment at the hands of the police. The leader, Mouthy, launches the Civil Disobedience Movement against the British. Gandhi deeps not figure as a character in the novel, but the various aspect of his philosophy and teachings are projected as the story unfolds. He is compared to the gods, save and Krishna, for destroying the demon of foreign rule.

His Serpent and The Rope appears in 1960 which is an exploration of supernatural encounter. Here is his examination of the East-West dilemma characterized by a deep souse of crisis in human relationships. The book electives critical applauses and won for Rao the sanity Academy Award. The cat and Shakespeare: A Tale of Modern India is a short novel of great merit with some philosophical content and has evoked conflicting reactions from literary critics.

Raja Rao’s next novel, Comrade Carillon explores the depths of the mind and soul of an orthodox Brahmin communist who is a confused bundle of contradictions. The reading public however, does not show much enthusiasm for this book. The chess master and His Moves is his most ambitions work of fiction which re-occurs the theme of multicultural confrontation.

Apart from his novels, he is also compiler of short stories. The cow of the Barricades and other stories is the collection of some of his translated Kannada stories and others written in English. On The Gang of Ghats is a collection of connected stories that presents vivid glimpses of the permanent reality of India life. He has also a few of the articles published in various journals, both English and Kannada.

Raja Rao has in his writing the traditional Indian precept. At the back of his writing are a mind and vision of life that are concrete yet elusive. All his heroes are in one way or another involved with the problem of knowing God and there by realizing themselves. To fully understand what Raja Rao says in his novels and short stories require some knowledge of the philosophy and metaphysics of Hinduism. In matter of experimenting literary expression, he has successfully conveyed the Indian way of life through the medium of English. While Anand renders the Punjabi expressions in English, Narayan touches the lyrical grace through simplicity; Raja Rota goes a staff further in mingling the grace and tone of the speech rhythms of his mother tongue, Kannada, with that of English, the foreign medium of his novels and short stories.

 Artistically, Raja is important because of his unique formal and thematic accomplishments in Indian English. Al though his five novels seem modest in comparison to others, Raja’s achievement is probably more impressive for it’s seasoned of truth, of self and of art.

Raja Rao's Contribution to Indian Fiction: A Critical Assessment: Key Points:

  1. Raja Rao was a pioneering Indian novelist who helped to introduce Indian fiction to the English-speaking world.
  2. He was a master of the English language, and he used it to create a unique and hybrid style that blended Indian and Western literary traditions.
  3. His novels explore the themes of identity, exile, and the relationship between East and West.
  4. He is considered one of the most important Indian novelists of the 20th century.
  5. Rao's novels are characterized by their use of symbolism and allegory.
  6. They often explore the conflict between traditional Indian values and the modern world.
  7. Rao's work has been praised for its beauty, its complexity, and its insights into the human condition.
  8. Raja Rao's work has had a lasting impact on Indian fiction. He helped to establish Indian fiction as a major force in world literature, and his work continues to be read and studied by scholars and critics around the world.

Indian literature in English : Walsh, William, 1916- : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/indianliterature0000wals

Indian English literature since independence : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/indianenglishlit0000unse

20th Century Literary Criticism with Special Reference -T.S. ELIOT, Arthur Symons


Twentieth century literary criticism has a wide variety. It is the result of the great  variety and complexity of the century itself-in all walks of life. The arm of the century inherited subjective and impressionistic criticism from Waller patter and Swinburne. The impressionistic criticism is based on the individual response to a literary work. Symons and Spingram are the well known impressionistic. Then, there is a psychological school of criticism, and a sociological school of critics. Then, there is a psychological school of criticism, and a sociological school of criticism. There psychological school of criticism regards all literary creation as the mar formation of the artist’s psychological abnegation. 

The sociological school of criticism lays stress on the importance of mid-line in reference to the making of an artist. Modern criticism has discarded some of the bold canons of crisis and commendable work in evaluating some of the Elizabethan and Noe-classical writers, and has revived interest in the Metaphysical school of poets, particularly Donne. T.S. Eliot combines in himself both the tendencies of modern criticism.


Pre- Raphaelite Poetry: ‘Fleshly School’ of Sexual Passion


The Pre- Raphaelite movement was started in 1810 by two German painters, Cornelius and Overbeck. It was called Pre- Raphaelite Brethren’. In England it was started by D.G. Rossetti, Hunt and Millais in 1848. It was called Per- Raphaelite Brotherhood. Its object was to revive in painting the simplicity, natural ease and grace of the early painters of Italy before Raphael. They indented themselves artistically with the painters before Raphael. Later on the move mint was joined by Morris and Swinburne. Of these D.G. Rossetti, Morris and Swinburne were poets, the other were painters. Rossetti was both painter and poet. These there poets represent the Pre-Raphaelite school of poetry. The poetry of the Per-Raphaelite poet was also called by some critics as the poetry of the ‘Fleshly school’.

One Act Play Made its Entrance in the Twentieth Century and Concentrates both the Denouement and Climax within its Short Space


Introduction:

The one act play practically made its entrance in the twentieth century and it concentrates both the denouement and climax within its short space. Herman Ould comments on one act play as, “It may be neat, compact and rigid: but it may also be wayward, expansive and flexible. So long as it does not conflict with the fundamental principles of drama, it may venture in to a hundred different directions and exploit almost as many themes as the ingenuity and inventiveness of the author can suggest.” In fact, the twentieth century brought about a transformation in the world of literature and drama. One of the notable innovations during this period was the rise of the one-act play. These shorter dramatic pieces became a hallmark of modernist and avant-garde movements in English literature. Here, we'll delve into the history and characteristics of one-act plays, focusing on their unique ability to pack the climax and denouement into a brief and intense narrative.

Origins of One-Act Plays:

Although in 20th century there is the preponderance of one act play, its origin can be stressed back to the 15th century among the Morality, miracle and Mystery plays. In old Sanskrit text there is also the shadow of one act play. But among those plays there is only the outward from not the essence of the modern time.

One-act plays in modern design can be traced back to the late nineteenth century, but they gained prominence in the early twentieth century. The genre was influenced by various dramatic and literary movements, including realism, naturalism, and symbolism. Playwrights like Anton Chekhov, who wrote "The Proposal" and "The Bear," and George Bernard Shaw, with works like "Village Wooing," were early pioneers of the form.


As start story can’t be expanded in to novel, a one act play can’t dare to be a full fetched five act play. The functioning of the act play is quite deferent from the five act play. An one act play does not have the time for elaborate speeches or meditative versification of the selective incidents within a short span of time are in acted with the purpose of turning them into a dramatic climax. With the purpose of creating an impression and dramatic climax the incidents are drawn on a particular setting, involving a single character in it. A one act play goes through three phases Exposition, Growth and climax. Except all these machineries a one act play can be striking on its exposition, character, impression, setting or comicality.

Concentration of Climax and Denouement:

One-act plays are characterized by their brevity and focus. They typically unfold in a single setting with a limited number of characters. Due to their concise nature, these plays often concentrate the climax and denouement within a short space. The climax, the highest point of tension and conflict, tends to occur relatively early in the play, creating an intense and immediate impact on the audience. The denouement, or resolution, obviously, swiftly follows the climax, providing closure to the story.

Themes and Styles:

One-act plays explored a wide range of themes, from the mundane to the existential, making them versatile and reflective of the diverse concerns of the twentieth century.
They experimented with different styles, including absurdism (e.g., Samuel Beckett's "Krapp's Last Tape"), expressionism (e.g., Eugene O'Neill's "The Hairy Ape"), and social commentary (e.g., August Strindberg's "The Stronger").

Impact on Theater:

One-act plays had a profound impact on theater by challenging traditional narrative structures and conventions. They offered playwrights a platform to experiment with innovative storytelling techniques and character development. Additionally, the shorter duration made them more accessible to both playwrights and audiences.

A few Examples:

Joe carrier’s "Hewers of Coal" has an expositional excellence. The play also sketches the character of oilman minutely. Norman McKinney’s "The Bishop’s Candlesticks" is a character based play. Here Bishop appears quite a bold character though his generosity, humanity, Patience and tolerance. Oliver Conway’s Becky sharp, Galsworthy’s "The Little man," David Scold Denial’s "The queen and Mr, Shakespeare," Housman’s "Under Fire," Maurice Barings’ "The Rehearsal "and Monthon Roy’s "Bidduitparna" are all character based plays. W.W. Jacob’s "The Monkey’s Paw" has a supernatural at morpheme whereas Gregory’s The Rising of the Moon is artistically superb. Milner’s "The Bay comes Home" is a social critique comically expressed. J.M. Synge’s "Riders to the Sea" is one of the best one act plays of the time and has all the requirements of such a play as brevity, compression, an overall atmosphere of doom, a deep human tragedy. Synge is also able to combine with it a local color presenting the real problems of the poor people of the Aram Islands. We can also mention one of the best one act plays in Bengali, "Subhayatra" by Probir Majumdaar. Here the story reveals the author’s sense of irony and deep insight. Beyond the aforementioned authors, other playwrights who made significant contributions to one-act plays include Susan Glaspell, Arthur Miller, and Tennessee Williams. Iconic one-act plays such as Glaspell's "Trifles," Miller's "The Last Yankee," and Williams's "27 Wagons Full of Cotton" continue to be celebrated for their storytelling economy.

Conclusion: 

The future of one act play is bright enough with the compulsion that the five-act play represents a full circle of life which demands more time And patience. But sorely to say modern man has none of these. A one-act play represents a gleam of life in portion and particles which suits the modern theatre goes. The ingenuity and inventiveness of one-act play wrights have also enthroned it and made it a piece of excellence.In conclusion, the rise of one-act plays in the twentieth century represented a shift in dramatic literature, offering a condensed yet impactful narrative format. Their ability to concentrate both the climax and denouement within a short space allowed playwrights to deliver powerful and thought-provoking stories, making them a distinctive and enduring element in the history of English literature and theater.

Ould. (1948, January 1). The Art of the Play . Sir I. Pitman & sons, ltd.

ALBERT. (2000). History of English Literature (Fifth Edition) [English]. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.

Myth | Definition, History, Examples, & Facts. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/myth

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A short history of English literature : Saintsbury, George, 1845-1933 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/ashorthistoryen01saingoog

A History Of Late Nineteenth Century Drama Vol 1 : Nicoll,allardyce : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.509588

A history of English literature : Buchan, John, 1875-1940 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/historyofenglish00buch

Full text of “A History Of English Literature Vol. 3 Ed.1st.” (n.d.). Full Text of “a History of English Literature Vol. 3 Ed.1st.” https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.100288/2015.100288.A-History-Of-English-Literature-Vol-3--Ed1st_djvu.txt

John Galsworthy’s Art of Characterization in The Man of Property


John Galsworthy, a “master of yesterday” in English fiction, does not ate height in critical evaluation today. That perhaps in an indicator of transience of fame when based on the surface of things or better still it exhibits the parade of literary fashion which so often rejects the beau model of yesterday are for the beau ideal of the next if only to keep the critic abreast of his times. Galsworthy has been variously described as one of the vile materialists, the protagonist of the well-made novel and the creator of well-made characters, which rather correspond to types despite the particularization they receive in the hands of their creator. Perhaps these are all true, but what is true is that these by themselves do not tell the whole truth.

Galsworthy’s presentation of characters in The Man of Property presumes a background with which the novelist was intimately connected in life. The action of the novel or the trilogy of which if forms a distinct and independent first part is woven round the sense of property is Victorian England in which is rooted deep the dominant contradiction of opinions, interests and ideas. Galsworthy who himself came from an old English stock knew the breed of Forsytes at first hand, and so the characters came to be portrayed with a realism that was not sheer fake posturing, even if it was the surface allegedly that he painted. One may observe while studying the characters in The Man of Property the presence of a certain feminine fiber in Galsworthy’s moral nature but that does not on the whole take away much from his ability to create some virile characters with a robust relief. One may also notice that in his art of characterization Galsworthy is not much influenced by masters at home but by the Great Russian Turgenev especially in the latter’s practice of precision and restraint. Both the Russian and the Englishman display some common traits in their art for delineation of characters, particularly in their enchanting sense of beauty and the gently ironical view they lathe of thee tragic follies and fables of common humanity.

W. B. Yeats’s Poetry: Analysis of Organic Development and Growth


The entire poetic career of Yeats, stretching over a period of about fifty years may be classified in to four sharply distinct hazes. It is of course, true that a critical analysis which concentrates on dissection is bound to be erroneous. Indeed it is not fair to segregate and pin down each phase as exclusively separate. A critical analysis which is equivalent to true appreciation will not put each such phase in to water bight compartment.

Three is however, a consensus of opinion amongst crib as that Yeast’s poetic career shows a development which is almost organic. Eminent cities including T.S. Eliot hold the view that Yeats’s creative faculty manifests a sort of organic development and growth. T.S. Eliot’s pertinent observation merits quotation.
             “I can think of no poet, not even the greatest, who has shown a longer period of development than Yeats. Development to this extent is not merely generous, it is character.”

The poetic career of Yeats is longer than that of Words worth or Tennyson. His poetic genius during this long period was in a sate of continuous growth and maturity. His later poetry shows distinct marks of advancement over the earlier one. It should, however, be borne in mind that there is no opposition or contradiction between the early and the later phases. His poetry as a whole displays an organic development and the later poetry with all the maturity is but a consummation or fruition of his earlier one. Celebrated critics like Kenner and Untercker have also endorsed the view that there exists a continuity, a trend of gradual development n Yeats’s poetic genius.  Hence the efflorescence of his later poems may be traced to the budding of his genius during the early phase.

However, this evolution of his poetic genius shows a process of show transition. This transition was ever an abrupt one. This process was a long and elaborates one and Prof Scott James has pertinently pointed out that it is in effect semblance with the Greek drama which prominently exhibits a beginning, a middle and an end. Now for the purpose of bringing this organic development in to foes, his poetic career may be divided in two following four stages:
(1)    The Celtic Twilight Period:  To this period belongs the early poetry of yeast. The term, however, takes its genesis from his prose romance captioned The Celtic Taillight. In this phase fall such poems as The Crossways, The Rose and The Wind among the Reeds.
(2)    The Middle period: This is undoubtedly a period of transition. In this period emanated poems like In the Seven Woods, The Green Helmet and other Poems and Responsibilities.

(3)    The complex later Period: This period evinces a maturity which has earned for him a med of universal approbation. To this period belong such masterpieces as The Wild Swans at Cole, The Tower, Michael Robert and The Dancer, The Winding Stair and other Poems, which are replete with crowing illustrations of Yearts’s maturity.
(4)    The Last    Phase: This includes poems composed during the last years. To this phase belongs Last Poems and Plays. 

     It is gratifying indeed to trace this development of his genius and to study the growth and evolution of his poetry in respect of form and content, tone and technique. In the early poetry or during Celtic Twilight period, Yeats appears to be escapist. The poet is found to emulate the pre-Raphaelites and the Romantic poets. Indeed to his early poetry we discern clear marks of Per-Raphaelite colour and romantic imagination.  The poet escapes from the harsh reality and sordidly of the mundane world into a pulsating dream-world of Irish legend, my theology and folklore.

Like Shelley, he found in his poems as a worshiper of abstract beauty. He has an irresistible and un construable attraction for the dream world, and his imagination is hunted by Fairland inhabited by heroes like Oilskin and Red Harahan. The heroes of Yeats are found to leave the real world for the world of the Sigh, the Druids and the Deanna children. The real world is “more full of weeping than you can understand.”  It could not satisfy the poet’s soul. T5hat is why he invited the “human child to the waters and the wild.” This fairy land or dream world with its pastoral background, enlivening solitude and idyllic charm haunted the imagination of the poet. This was a world far removed from the “sick hurries and divided aims”, from the ‘fever and fret’, He used to take refuge in the world of dreamed which could offer spiritual solace, rest and relaxation to his weary mind and soul and his imagination could have a free play here. It is a delightful world of unbridled fanny-a favorites Yeastier Arcadia which could offer scooting anodyne to the fatigued mind and soul of the poet. The man Who Dreamed of Fairyland. The Lake Lisle of In news free and The Stolen Child are some of the representative poems of this phase.Such early poems make us familiar with “a generally living folk culture and a mythology which has not grown stale and hackneyed by centuries of repetition.”

When we enter in to the world of Yeats’s early poetry, we enter in to a dream-world imaginary Colitis twilight. It is essentially an unreal world of fantasy and make-believe, where “rivers run over with red beer and brown beer” and the boughs “nave their fruits and blossoms at all times of the year.”

In perfect kinship with the content of his early poetry the style is also rich, prate and luxurious. It is easy and languid, reminiscent of the stale of Spenser, Keats, Shelley, Tennyson, Rossetti and Swinburne. The tone is sometimes wistful and sometimes nostalgic and the poet luxuriates with colour. But the colour is anther pale and indistinct, shadowy and misty. There is much of the pictorial quality. There raise. He contributed his mite to the symbolic-aesthetic tradition of the time. But at the sometime, he was gradually switching over to another very complex phase of his poetic career. The year 1904 is a truing point in this respect and he embarked on this phase with an altogether new note. In the Seven Woods is an illustration in this point. He came with a pronounced note of penctralia of his own self, he discovered the inherent beauty of life; but he also realized the terrible inhuman nature of this beauty which is ‘the world’s bane”.

The poems of this realistic transitional phase are marked by sarcastic, harsh and sardonic and conspired together to bring him out of the ivory tower of the early phase. The illusions so log cherished by him were summarily shattered by many a frustrating experience and disappointment undergone by him. The betrayal of Maud Gonne and conferences in the sphere of politics and the sense of utter disillusionment in respect of the Abbey Theatre and his direct involvement in the belligerent public controversies in the political and cultural arena-all these wrought a sea change in Yeast’s career and thus gradually vanished all his early dreams. He was not even complacent with the production of the belles-letters of the transitional period. He came closer to the stern reality surrounding him and to the life itself in its true essence ad entirety. Also he became increasingly conscious of the decay and degradation of the blood and mire. He came out of the exotic dream world of his youthful fancy and esoteric aestheticism.   

The Responsibilities, fraught as it is with the “ironic commentary on contemporary affairs” is a representative poem of tis stage. The somber aspect of life and the grim reality had a great sway on him, which, but for his profound poetic imagination, would have generated a lurid bias, a morbidity in his attitude. He now concerted his attention upon the world and “instead of the remote mythology of Gaelic legend, he creates a new mythology out of the patriots of 18th century Ireland who still lived in the popular imagination.” He relinquished the mood of romantic exuberance and came to dwell upon the inexorable and inscrutable realities of life. The wonderful threnody on o’ Leary world exemplify how yeast at this time attained a superb poetry power of transforming contemporary facts and incidents into marvelous canines of poetry, charged with the intensity of feeling and laden with matters derived from life itself.
             
    “Romantic Ireland is dead and gone.
          Is with O’Leary in the grave.”
       The underlying wistfulness, despair and nostalgia are some of the distinguishing features of this elegy.

This change in respect of content ushered in a currents pounding change in for, style and technique. The tone became more austere and nor concentrated. His images became more precise and pointed and the diction had a sinewy bareness and vigor and force. At this stage, the poet developed an increasing tendency to us use the colloquial speech, the common diction and “now the soap-behold only earthly and clear, the bare outlines of cold care Rock and Galway Rock and thorn.” Instead of Romanic ebullience and incantatory music, we find epigrammatic terseness, intensity and vigor, Wordsworthian simplicity of diction and an intensity and sublimity which is almost Dantesque in magnitude. The poem captioned A Coat brings into focus the typical poetic attitude of Yeats during this time:                                      “I made my songs a coat
                                                Covered with embroideries
                                                            Out of old my theologies
                                                   From heel to throat:
                                                                   But the fool caught,
                                                     Wore ii in the world’s eyes
                                                                    As though they’d wrought it.
                                                          Song, let them take it,
                                                                       For there’s more enterprise
                                                               In walking naked.”

Wikipedia: William Butler Yeats 
Having had a close view of life and having witnessed with great concern, the blood and mire and the all-contaminating  and all engulfing degradation, the poet was frantically looking for a gleam of hope, an anchorage in The Tower or the Byzantium. He was seeking respite and tranquility. But at the same time he had a great lust for life which could not be totally renounced. Thus there was an inner conflict which found expression in the nature verses of the later stage. The divergent interconflicting moods account for much of the complexity. He displayed an astonishing command over his materials and a superb power if switching over from one particular object to the other completely disconcerting and suggestive of dev lament. No second Troy is a characteristic poem of this category which would illustrate this with crystal clarity. The sinewy bareness of the structural pattern, the complexity and variety of moods expressed, the rhythmic quality of verse and the craftsmanship with which common diction has been  used for complex poetic purpose, all point to an inordinate maturity achieved by the poet. In Sailing to Byzantium, we notice a similar or more intricate design of versification where incantatory diction has alternately been used with “choppy words.” Yeats employed symbols in plethoric abundance at every stage of his poetic career. But at this time, the symbols are more complex and intricate. Evocative, emotive and more full of suggestive implications as his symbols usually are, his time their scope and vista wear all the more widened. The tower and the winding stair symbols are equally personal and traditional. David Daicches has an illuminating comment to make in this context:-
“While in his earlier poetry, Yeats merely presented the antimonies of life, in his later life he dries also to reconcile them.” Eminent critics like L.C. Knights and Middleton Marry are however of different opinion. They maintain that the poet failed to reconcile the disparate elements and this explains the increasing pessimism of his last poems.

The poems composed during thus last phase are ironical and tragic. A note of pathos, irony and poetry of this last phase. But all these were calculated to cover up the intensity of his suffering, the frustration and tragedy of life. But the poet retained the command over his materials all through. Up to the end he was in the fullness of his powers. But with the passing away of time, the poet was gradually becoming an isolated entity, immune from the complex world around him. The poet was pathetically conscious of this deplorable isolation, of the lonesome existence which lay heavy on him:
                                        “But I grow old among dreams
                                                 A weather-worn marble Triton,
                                             A moug the streams.”
In the above analysis, we have already viewed the exceptional and sterling artistic felicity of Yeats, his brilliant poetic craftsmanship and many other intrinsic merits as a poet of the modern era. He is pre-eminently a poet of the age. Despite the romantic quality of his early poetry and the Pre-Raphaelite tinge, he is out and a modern poet.

The term ‘modernity’ is undoubtedly a relative term which should transcended the bounds of his age by virtue of the sheer appeal of his poetry which has sometimes been of course universal. But besides this, he is typically modern in respect both of the from and besides this, he is typically modern in age-consciousness was pronounced in him and the poet has depicted a full-length picture of the modern world in a host of his mature poems,. The modern world has been observed by him with the modern civilization much what is contemptible, vulgar and ugly. The poem Nineteen Hundred And Nineteen does conform to the modern age in being a faithful revelation of the horror of Ireland. The poem begging with a note of lament for Athens and then subsequently the poet deplores the situation of the contemporary Ireland The poet was satisfied with simply drawing a grim picture. He opined that what happened to Egypt and Babylon had recurred in Ireland. Meditations in Time of Civil War is also a typically modern poem in which are condensed and creolized some of the complex thoughts houses lead the poet to ruminate over root of all such ruination. The decline of the ruined houses, a according to the poet, should be ascribed to the decay from within.

Yeats may legitimately be regarded as a connecting link between the decaying aestheticism of the present century. The Green Helmet published in the year 1910 marked the beginning of a new phase. The circumstances and events of his life, the upheavals of the contemporary society, his sensitive poetic temperament compelled him to participate actively in almost all the momentous movements, activities and influences of his age. He was sees tidally a visionary, a dreamer of sweet dreams and as such it was natural that he felt himself to be an alien being in the world of mechanical civilization were worth of everything is evaluated by scientific tests and experiments and were heart is put into the acid-test of reason. He clamored out to break the shackles of artificial bondage and he believed that civilization tends to thwart refined human sensibilities and stilt the fundamental consciousness of ourselves. Although as a technician he was more traditional than an innovator, the epithet-‘modern poet’ may justifiably be assigned to him. He has played the modern tune over the old keyboard of tradition.

Key Points Discussed Here: W. B. Yeats’s Poetry: Analysis of Organic Development and Growth

Evolution of Themes:
  1. Yeats's poetry evolves from romanticism to modernism.
  2. Early works focus on love and mysticism, later shifting to societal and political concerns.
Symbolism and Myth:
  1. His fascination with Irish folklore and mythology deepens over time.
  2. Symbolism becomes a hallmark, reflecting complex themes and personal philosophy.
Maturity and Realism:
  1. Later poems embrace realism, addressing age, mortality, and the complexities of life.
  2. Yeats's poetry showcases a progression of ideas, demonstrating his organic growth as a poet.
Ref:

W B Yeats : a biography with selected poems : Lambirth, Andrew, 1959- : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/wbyeatsbiography0000lamb

Selected poems, W.B. Yeats : notes : Jeffares, A. Norman (Alexander Norman), 1920-2005 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/selectedpoemswby0000jeff

Full text of “William Butler Yeats’s Search For A Spiritual Philosophy.” (n.d.). Full Text of “William Butler Yeats’s Search for a Spiritual Philosophy.” https://archive.org/stream/WilliamButlerYeatssSearchForASpiritualPhilosophy/WilliamButlerYeatssSearchForASpiritualPhilosophy_djvu.txt

W B Yeats - Collected Poems, 1889-1939 : W B Yeats : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/WBYeats-CollectedPoems1889-1939

W. B. Yeats, man and poet : Jeffares, A. Norman : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/wbyeatsmanpoet00jeff

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