Igbo Society and Astonishing Variety of Women's roles in Chinua Achebe’s Novels make them Masterpiece


Contradictions if well understood and managed can spark off the fires of invention. Orthodoxy whether of the right or of the left is the graveyard of creativity.”
Chinua Achebe (1930 - 2013)
Nigerian novelist, poet, and essayist.
Anthills of the Savannah
                                                                                                                                                             
According to Charles Larson in The Emergence of African Fiction  Chinua Achebe has been praised as 'the most original African novelist writing in English'. Critics throughout the world have praised Achebe’s Novels as the first African English-language classic for tribal identity. Investigating through Chinua Achebe’s Novels, the article  is the search for women’s roles in Igbo society in south-East Nigeria of pre-colonial state. Apart from Igbo women identity, I am in search for a more general understanding of questions of tribal womanhood. The complex individual, social and tribal-political relations in the Nigerian pre-colonial state can be seen in Achebe’s novel. It will provide not merely the context for the search for Igbo women identity, but also to a large extent determine its intellectual conclusions. In fact, South-East Nigeria and Igbo tribe is one of the prime focuses of Chinua Achebe’s novels. They are set in Africa and describe the struggles of the African people to free themselves from European political influences. Women do a considerable job for their own rights and reconfigurations. Read More Modern Period

Along the things of the complex, ethnic, religious and regional divisions Achebe’s novels are characterized by understanding of the tribes and their custom. In that perspective, tribal woman in his novels deserve a thorough understanding. Achebe has shown these womenfolk and designed them carefully. They ensure that communities survive and they keep their dignity intact so as to give womanhood the pride of place it deserves in tribal integration and development. 

Igbo heartland in southeastern Nigeria Africa was the birthplace of the tribes-indigenous origin. However, recent estimates suggest that 50 percent are Muslims, 40 percent are Christians, and 10 percent adhere to traditional religions. Igbo are now worldwide spread but culturally they are marginalized. So the comprehensive study on them, particularly women, through the pages of Achebe’s Novels will bring them fresh lees of life. My study will also examine the subjugation of Nigerian women with regard to how their political marginalization constricts the public sphere, the resource centre of public opinion, which strengthens the ideals of democracy and good governance. The political marginalization of women in Nigeria is a rectilinear upshot of their low participation in government and politics necessitated by patriarchy. This patriarchal practice has animated the urgency of expanded public sphere as well as feminism, an ideological, aesthetic and cultural movement, steeped in agitating for the rights of women and expanding the frontiers of their participation in the political process. In the political novel Anthills of the Savannah, Chinua Achebe has deftly refracted the rise of new Nigerian women, who are generation changers. Beatrice represents Achebe’s new women; her portraiture in the novel interrogates postcolonial Nigerian politics of disempowerment, marginalization, shrunken public sphere and gendered space that occlude good governance.
                                                                                                                                                                    Primarily woman suffer great losses in Chinua Achebe’s novels- be it Things Fall Apart or   No Longer at Ease or, Arrow of God  or A Man of the People or Anthills of the Savannah. But also in certain circumstances, they hold tremendous power. Canadian feminist critic Florence Stratton sternly argues in Contemporary African Literature and the Politics of Gender (1994) that Achebe gives men cultural roles that were actually occupied by women in traditional Igbo culture. We cannot deny the fact and the subsequent criticism. Yet it is not entirely true. And thus, truly relating to this, understanding of woman and femininity in general will add depth and sensitivity to the ultimate picture of Igbo land. Even, from the close scrutiny the entire tribal women in Achebe’s novels is so variegated that without them the tribal life looks dim and hazy. On Igbo women’s position in the household Don C. Ohadike said in his book Igbo Culture and History (page:XXXII) “Having several women in a household enhanced not only a man's status but also the prestige of the first wife. As the head woman of the household, she shared every title that the man might acquire. She presided over household deliberations, most men preferring not to get personally involved, except in emergencies. Junior wives enjoyed the security and prosperity that large households provided. In addition, Igbo women had rights and freedoms that they jealously guarded. They lived in their own separate houses, cooked for themselves, and raised their own children. They grew crops, part of which they sold in the marketplace, and kept the proceeds. Moreover, Igbo laws and customs permitted an unhappy wife to leave.” Read More Modern Period
                                                                                                                                                                             
wiki: Chinua Achebe
For Example, In the life of Okonkwo (Things Fall Apart) woman play vital role. However, the women can be read according to their self-perceptions, as well as societal awareness of them as women, wives, mothers and daughters. Ekwefi, ‘the crystal of beauty’, is overcoming disappointment and bitterness in her life.
Read More Novel In fact, Ekwefi’s losing nine children denotes an age when scientific and medical knowledge about childhood diseases was unavailable and a child was considered safe only after he lived for three to four years. Ezinma, the daughter who survives the early diseases, however, earns her father’s love and respect like that of a male child. Linda Strong-Leek said in her Reading as a Woman: Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart and Feminist Criticism (African Studies Quarterly | Volume 5, Issue 2 | Summer 2001 ISSN: 2152-2448) that “There is one woman, or young girl who elicits pure love from all the lives she touches, even her father, Okonkwo. However, he cannot fully appreciate Ezinma as a person. Instead of admiring her for her strength and disposition as a burgeoning woman, Oknonkwo is saddened by the fact that she is not male.” Again it is interesting to study how the women in A Man of the People play an important role in Odili and Nangas' motive changes. However, in most critical treatise, No Longer At Ease Achebe shows how in corrupt Nigeria Men offer money, and women offer their bodies, in return for favors and services. Read More Modern Period

On the other hand, Igbo women control certain spheres of community life, just as men control other spheres. Women are perceived to possess superior spiritual well-being and headed many of the traditional cults and shrines. Things Fall Apart exemplifies these. For example, Chielo the priestess of Agbala, serves the oracle. Even none of the clan challenges her authority. Even in this tribal society mother tells stories to her children, even dares the superstitious beliefs to save her child. A tribal woman is wise to the ways of the tribe. Their words describe the feelings like pity and forgiveness. They try to adhere to sacred tribal customs but often time displays the courage of a tribesman. Again the annual cycle of productivity (planting and harvest) associated with the new moon also reinforces its connection the mother figure by evoking the monthly cycles of female fecundity in Arrow of God.                                                     
Igbo woman begins her life as an apprentice. If she survives the tender age (infant deaths), she assists her mother at home, on the farm, or in the marketplace. On the plight of infant’s death Don C. Ohadike said in his book Igbo Culture and History (page: XXXVI) “Until the beginning of the twentieth century, the Igbo threw away twin babies soon after they were born. People today are very reluctant to talk about it, for they cannot explain why they often prayed to God (Chukwu) for many children, yet when twins or triplets were born, the infants were left in the forest to die.” Read More Novel However, as she advances in age, she learns hard work, marriage- duties, social advancement etc. Achebe’s novels covers the journey of Igbo women hood -female circumcision, Igbo courtship, marriage, marriage process, bride price, the wife’s position, polygamy, family ranking etc. 

Key Points:

  1. Chinua Achebe's novels are set in Igboland, a region of Nigeria with a rich and complex culture.
  2. Achebe's novels explore the lives of Igbo women, who play a variety of roles in their society.
  3. These roles range from the traditional roles of wife and mother to the more unconventional roles of warrior and political leader.
  4. Achebe's novels are masterpieces because they offer a nuanced and complex portrayal of Igbo society and the women who live there.
  5. Achebe's novels show that Igbo women are strong and independent, and that they play an important role in their society.
  6. They also show that Igbo women are not monolithic, and that they come from different backgrounds and have different experiences.
  7. Achebe's novels are important because they offer a more accurate and nuanced portrayal of African women than is often seen in Western literature.
Ref: 
i. Igbo Homepage. 1998. Web 23 Nov 2011
ii. Reading as a Woman: Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart and Feminist Criticism (African Studies Quarterly | Volume 5, Issue 2 | Summer 2001 ISSN: 2152-2448) by Linda Strong-Leek 
iii. Chinua Achebe | Biography, Books, & Facts. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Chinua-Achebe
iv. Things fall apart : Achebe, Chinua : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/thingsfallapart00ache_ldx
v. Achebe, C. (1997, February 4). Anthills of the Savannah. https://doi.org/10.1604/9780385260459

Sources of Shakespeare’s Plays: Four Difficulties


A writer of such prodigious and prolix nature as William Shakespeare, his primary concern was to get hold of a story that could be shaped to the needs of the theatre. For, he was essentially a man of the theatre with a practical sense and eye always on what would please the palates of his audience.

 And Shakespeare’s plays, as has already been mentioned, were meant to be enacted and not for closet reading. So, the story came first with him. William Shakespeare’s for all this popularity and universality was not an original story – writer but an original story – teller only. Shakespeare was a unique creator; but not an inventor of stories. He never took the trouble of inventing his plots. He drew upon, for the materials of his plays, such stories as had already been invented or recorded, provided only that they were suitable to his particular purpose, and were well – known or popular. Where from did William Shakespeare get so many stories for so many of his plays? It is here that we turn to the topic on hand, Shakespeare’s sources. There are four difficulties in a discussion of Shakespeare’s use of his sources.

[A] So many Elizabethan books have been lost.

So many Elizabethan books have been lost. So many plays which William Shakespeare may have known as actor or spectator were never published. The inevitable result is that we cannot always be certain that he did not derive information from them rather than form works which he seems to have used.

This is a major difficulty because it means that we cannot always be sure whether Shakespeare knew a particular book or not. For example, there is a book called "The Mirror for Magistrates" that was very popular in Shakespeare's time, but only a few copies of it survive today. It is possible that Shakespeare knew this book, but we cannot be sure.

There are a number of reasons why Elizabethan books have been lost. Some books were simply not popular and were not reprinted. Others were destroyed in fires or other disasters. And still others were simply lost or discarded over time.

The loss of these books makes it difficult to track down Shakespeare's sources. However, scholars have been able to find a number of sources for Shakespeare's plays, even though the books themselves are no longer available.

[B]There was a great deal of common knowledge repeated in book after book.

There was a great deal of common knowledge repeated in book after book. Hence a particular source for such ‘commonplaces’ is often impossible to determine. 
This is another difficulty because it means that it is often impossible to determine the source of a particular piece of information. For example, the story of Romeo and Juliet is a well-known one, and it appears in many different forms. It is possible that Shakespeare knew the story from one of these sources, but it is also possible that he created his own version of the story.

The fact that there was a great deal of common knowledge in Shakespeare's time makes it difficult to track down his sources. However, scholars have been able to use a number of methods to identify Shakespeare's sources, even when the information is repeated in many different places.

[C]The extent of Shakespeare's knowledge of foreign languages is still a matter of critical debate.

The extent of Shakespeare’s knowledge of foreign languages is still a matter of critical debate. He knew Latin and French. He probably knew some Italian. He may have known a smattering of Spanish. The only evidence that he knew any Greek is Jonson’s rather pejorative remark that Shakespeare had “small Latin and less Greek”.

This is a difficulty because it affects our understanding of Shakespeare's sources. For example, if Shakespeare knew Latin, then he could have read Roman plays and poems. If he knew French, then he could have read French plays and poems. However, if Shakespeare did not know these languages, then he would have had to rely on translations or on other sources.

There is no definitive answer to the question of Shakespeare's knowledge of foreign languages. Some scholars believe that he knew Latin and French very well, while others believe that he knew them only minimally. There is also some debate about whether Shakespeare knew Italian or Spanish.

The uncertainty about Shakespeare's knowledge of foreign languages makes it difficult to identify his sources. However, scholars have been able to make some progress in this area by comparing Shakespeare's plays to known translations of foreign works.

[D] There is itself a confusions over Shakespearean authorship.

This is a difficulty because it means that we cannot be sure who actually wrote Shakespeare's plays. There are a number of people who have been suggested as the real author, including Christopher Marlowe, Edward de Vere, and Francis Bacon. However, there is no definitive evidence to support any of these claims.

The controversy over Shakespearean authorship is a complex one, and there is no easy answer. However, it is important to be aware of this controversy when trying to determine the sources of Shakespeare's plays.
·        Despite the difficulties, scholars have made great progress in identifying Shakespeare's sources. They have found evidence that Shakespeare drew on a wide variety of sources, including books, plays, poems, and even proverbs. This evidence helps us to understand Shakespeare's work better and to appreciate his genius as a playwright.

Early Comedies: The Comedy of Errors The Two Gentlemen of Verona The Taming of the Shrew Love's Labour's Lost Middle Comedies A Midsummer Night's Dream The Merchant of Venice
·         Mature Comedies: Much Ado About Nothing As You Like It The Merry Wives of Windsor Twelfth Night
·         Problem Comedies: All's Well That Ends Well Troilus and Cressida Measure for Measure Early Histories Henry VI, Parts I, II, and III Richard III
·         Later Histories: Richard II Henry IV, Parts I and II Henry V King John Henry VIII
·         Early Tragedies: Titus Andronicus Romeo and Juliet Julius Caesar
·         Mature Tragedies: Hamlet Othello King Lear Antony and Cleopatra Macbeth Coriolanus Timon of Athens
·         The Late Plays: Pericles, Prince of Tyre Cymbeline The Winter's Tale The Tempest

References:

A Companion to Shakespeare Studies : H et al Granville-Barker : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/companiontoshake0000heta

British Library. (n.d.). British Library. https://www.bl.uk/shakespeare/articles/character-analysis-miranda-in-the-tempest

The Norton Shakespeare. (n.d.). The Norton Shakespeare | Stephen Greenblatt, Walter Cohen, Suzanne Gossett, Jean E Howard, Katharine Eisaman Maus, Gordon McMullan | W. W. Norton & Company. https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393264029

Shakespeare’s dramatic art. : History and character of Shakespeare’s plays : Ulrici, Hermann, 1806-1884 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/shakespearesdram01ulri

Full text of “Shakespeare And His Critics.” (n.d.). Full Text of “Shakespeare and His Critics.” https://archive.org/stream/shakespeareandhi030042mbp/shakespeareandhi030042mbp_djvu.txt

Shakespeare’s Imagination and Sources: Italian Novella, English History, and Wellknown Romances of Europe


The main ‘sources’ of William Shakespeare’s plays were the classics, the Italian Novella, English history, and the well – known  romances of Europe. To know the sources, is not to detract from the glory and greatness of the dramatists.

Translation Method In Teaching English as a Second Language : Merits and Demerits



I. Introduction


The Translation Method is an approach to teaching English as a Second Language (ESL) that involves the direct translation of words, phrases, and sentences from the learner's native language (L1) to English (L2) and vice versa. This method has been used historically in language teaching and is still employed in various settings worldwide, including in India.


In the Indian context, the Translation Method holds significance due to the diverse linguistic landscape of the country. India is a multilingual nation with over 22 officially recognized languages and hundreds of regional languages and dialects. English, being one of the official languages, plays a crucial role in education, business, and communication.

The Translation Method becomes relevant in India for the following reasons:

Image by AkshayaPatra Foundation 
from 
Pixabay

Bridging Language Barriers:
Many students in India come from non-English speaking backgrounds, and the Translation Method helps bridge the gap by allowing them to understand English through their familiar L1.

Preserving Cultural Identity: By using the Translation Method, learners can retain their cultural identity as they learn English. They can explore literature, history, and other subjects in their native language while understanding the English equivalents.

Early Stage Learning: For beginners, the Translation Method can be an effective starting point. It helps learners quickly grasp the basics of English vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure.

Limited Resources: In certain regions and schools, resources for ESL teaching may be limited. The Translation Method provides a simple and accessible way to teach English without the need for extensive materials.

Despite its relevance, the Translation Method also has its drawbacks. In the subsequent sections, we will explore its merits and demerits in the Indian ESL context.

II. Translation Method and how is it Relevent in Achieving Aim of Teaching English

According to Thompson and Wyatt (Teaching of English By Tiwari) there are four specific aim of teaching English at the school stage. They are-
 
  1. To understand spoken English.
  2. To speak English
  3. To understand written English
  4. To write English.

At school level, the students should have the ability to understand spoken English, needed in ordinary conversation, exchange of directions and listening to lecture, talks, running commentary on matches, and news bulletins etc. To achieve this aim, students should be given opportunities to listen radio, gramophone, tape recorders etc. The aim should be enable the students to understand English spoken by the native speakers.


Speech is of unique importance in learning a language. It is the base of all language learning. At the end of 5 or 6 years of learning English, we expect the students to talk fluently in English. Their speech should be fairly intelligible to the native speakers.


Aims of teaching English should be to enable the students to read with understanding printed materials in English. It is expected of a school leaver in India to be able to read should, if he joins a college, be able to adopt English as the medium of instruction and examination in his studies.


One of the aims of teaching English should be to enable the school leavers to write in English simple letters, application, description, and account of events. The ability is also needed in college and university where he has to take notes from lectures delivered in English as well as write himself.

Translation method is one of the traditional methods, as stated earlier, which helps in achieving the fourfold specific aim of teaching English at the school stage. Thomson and Wyatt have laid down the following fundamental principle on which this method is based:

  1. That translation interprets foreign phraseology the best.
  2. Mother tongue dominates the teaching of English.
  3. The unit of teaching is word not sentence.
  4. The linguistic material presented for study is graded on a grammatical plan.
  5. That in the process of interpretation the foreign phraseology is assimilated.
  6. The method lays stress on reading.
  7. The structure of a foreign language is best learnt when compared and contrasted with that of mother tongue.
  8.  “Under the Translation method the meaning of English words, phrases and sentence was taught by means of word-for-word translation into the mother tongue”.
From the above principles it is glorious that according to this method English is taught through the process of translation into the mother tongue.

 Translation method, though it is one of the oldest methods of teaching English, is still in vogue in most of the schools in Asia. 

III. Merits of the Translation Method

A. Cultural and Linguistic Familiarity

The Translation Method allows learners to connect with the English language by relating it to their native culture and language. By using familiar L1 expressions and idioms, students can better grasp the meaning and nuances of English words and phrases. This familiarity helps create a positive learning environment, where learners feel more comfortable and engaged in the language acquisition process.

B. Quick Comprehension for Beginners

For beginners in English learning, the Translation Method offers a relatively straightforward and efficient way to understand the language. By translating L1 texts into English and vice versa, learners can quickly grasp the meaning of new vocabulary and sentence structures. This accelerated comprehension can boost learners' confidence and motivation, making them more receptive to further language learning.

C. Enhancing Vocabulary and Grammar Skills

Through the Translation Method, learners can expand their vocabulary and improve their understanding of grammar rules. By comparing L1 and L2 sentences, learners become more aware of the similarities and differences between the two languages, leading to a more profound comprehension of English grammar and syntax.

D. Preservation of Native Language and Culture

In the Indian context, where regional languages hold immense cultural value, the Translation Method helps preserve and promote native languages. Learners can appreciate their heritage while acquiring English language skills. Additionally, by understanding English texts in the context of their L1, students can develop a deeper understanding of their culture's values, beliefs, and traditions.

Overall, the Translation Method offers valuable advantages in the ESL classroom, particularly in culturally diverse settings like India. However, it is essential to acknowledge its limitations and consider a balanced approach to language teaching that incorporates other methodologies to meet the diverse needs of language learners.

So in a nutshell: 
  1. This method is very helpful in learning foreign language if it is used judiciously and not in excess.
  2. Where explanation in English or direct illustration fails, translation serves the purpose best in giving the meaning of a new word.
  3. The association between a foreign word and a native word strengthens the learning bond.
  4. The child proceeds from the known to the unknown.
  5. The difference between the structures of sentences in English and those in the mother tongue can be effectively pointed out through translation.
  6. It is comparatively easy on the part of the teacher to follow this method.
  7. It prevents unnecessary wastage of time.

IV. Demerits of the Translation Method

A. Limited Spoken Communication Skills

One of the significant drawbacks of the Translation Method is its tendency to focus primarily on written language and translation exercises. As a result, learners may not get sufficient opportunities to practice and develop their spoken communication skills. Language fluency and pronunciation are essential aspects of language learning, and the Translation Method may not adequately address these aspects, leading to limited proficiency in oral communication.

B. Overdependence on L1 (First Language)

While the Translation Method initially utilizes learners' L1 to facilitate understanding, excessive reliance on the native language can hinder the development of thinking and expressing ideas directly in English. Students may become overly dependent on translating every word, which impedes their ability to think in English and communicate fluently without constant reference to their L1.

C. Lack of Natural Language Acquisition

Language acquisition is a dynamic process that involves immersion and exposure to the target language in various real-life contexts. The Translation Method, which relies on a structural approach of L1-L2 comparison, may not provide enough exposure to authentic English language usage. Natural language acquisition, involving listening, speaking, reading, and writing, is essential for well-rounded language proficiency, which the Translation Method may not fully support.

D. Ineffective for Advanced Language Learners

As learners progress to more advanced levels, the limitations of the Translation Method become more apparent. Advanced language learners require greater emphasis on fluency, expression, and critical thinking. The Translation Method's focus on word-for-word translation may not suffice to meet the demands of complex language usage and more nuanced communication skills necessary at higher proficiency levels.

While the Translation Method may have its merits, especially for beginners and in certain contexts, educators need to consider its limitations and complement it with other language teaching approaches. A well-rounded language curriculum should include opportunities for communicative activities, authentic language exposure, and the development of language skills beyond mere translation. Combining different methodologies can provide learners with a comprehensive and effective language learning experience.

So in a nutshell:

  1. This method gives no scope for training in speech.
  2. It gives the pupils no scope for thinking in English by creating an atmosphere of the foreign speech.
  3. This method proves the impossibility of word-for-word translation.
  4. It prevents the pupils from self-expression in English.
  5. It fails to cultivate the rapid reading in the pupils.
  6. The whole approach to English being through translation, there is every possibility of pupils English unidiomatic and therefore bad English.
  7. It is an important drawback of this method that the whole approach to English is made through the translation of the mother tongue.

V. Challenges in Implementing Translation Method in Indian ESL Classrooms

A. Heterogeneous Language Proficiency Levels

Indian ESL classrooms often consist of students with diverse language backgrounds and varying proficiency levels in English. Implementing the Translation Method in such a setting can be challenging, as some learners may find it too elementary, while others might struggle to keep up with the pace. Tailoring the approach to accommodate these differences and provide individualized support becomes crucial for effective language learning.

B. Regional and Cultural Diversity

India's linguistic and cultural diversity poses a significant challenge when employing the Translation Method. Different regions have distinct languages, dialects, and cultural norms. The method's reliance on L1 might not be equally applicable or effective across all linguistic groups. Educators need to consider cultural sensitivity and adapt teaching materials to resonate with learners' diverse backgrounds.

C. Teacher Training and Competence

The successful implementation of the Translation Method requires competent and well-trained teachers. Not all educators may be adequately familiar with the nuances of language translation or possess the necessary expertise to address the challenges arising from using this method. Proper training and professional development programs are essential to ensure teachers can effectively apply the Translation Method in the classroom.

D. Aligning with Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Objectives

In recent years, the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach has gained prominence as a more effective method to develop learners' communication skills. However, the Translation Method may not align well with CLT's emphasis on real-life language use, interaction, and meaningful communication. Integrating the Translation Method with CLT objectives poses a challenge for educators seeking a balanced and comprehensive language teaching approach.

To overcome these challenges, educators can adopt a hybrid approach that combines elements of the Translation Method with other methodologies, such as CLT and task-based learning. Individualizing instruction based on students' needs, utilizing technology and multimedia resources, and creating a positive and inclusive learning environment can enhance the effectiveness of the Translation Method in Indian ESL classrooms.

V. Strategies to Overcome Demerits and Optimize Translation Method

A. Balanced Integration of Speaking and Listening Activities

To address the limited spoken communication skills associated with the Translation Method, educators can incorporate more speaking and listening activities into the curriculum. Engaging learners in conversations, group discussions, role-plays, and language games promotes oral fluency and encourages active participation. By striking a balance between written and spoken language practice, students can develop well-rounded language skills.

B. Encouraging Critical Thinking and Creative Expression

To reduce overdependence on L1 and foster thinking in English, teachers should encourage learners to express themselves creatively and analytically. Engaging students in debates, problem-solving tasks, and open-ended discussions prompts them to think in English and articulate their thoughts independently. This approach nurtures language autonomy and enhances learners' confidence in using English as a means of expression.

C. Contextualizing Language Use and Cultural References

In a culturally diverse setting like India, educators can contextualize language use by incorporating regional cultural references and materials relevant to learners' backgrounds. By integrating familiar themes and real-life situations, the Translation Method becomes more relatable and meaningful to students. This strategy also fosters a deeper appreciation for linguistic and cultural diversity.

D. Gradual Transition to Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

To overcome the limitation of the Translation Method for advanced language learners, teachers can gradually introduce aspects of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in the classroom. As learners progress in their language proficiency, teachers can incorporate more interactive and communicative activities. Task-based learning, group projects, and language immersion experiences allow students to apply language skills in authentic contexts.

By implementing these strategies, educators can optimize the Translation Method and create a dynamic and engaging language learning environment. By adapting the approach to suit the diverse needs of learners and integrating it with other effective methodologies, educators can ensure a comprehensive language learning experience that fosters fluency, critical thinking, and cultural appreciation.

VI. Conclusion

A. Recognizing the Relevance of Translation Method

The Translation Method, despite its demerits, remains relevant in the Indian ESL context. Its ability to provide cultural and linguistic familiarity, quick comprehension for beginners, and preservation of native language and culture makes it a valuable tool, especially in linguistically diverse settings like India.

B. Balancing Tradition and Modern Language Teaching Approaches

As educators, it is crucial to strike a balance between traditional approaches like the Translation Method and modern language teaching methodologies. While acknowledging the merits of tradition, we must also incorporate contemporary approaches like Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) to address the limitations and ensure a more comprehensive and effective language learning experience for students.

C. The Importance of Contextual Adaptation for Successful ESL Learning in India

Given India's rich linguistic and cultural diversity, contextual adaptation is key to successful ESL learning. By contextualizing language instruction to reflect students' backgrounds and experiences, educators can create a meaningful and inclusive learning environment. This approach not only fosters language acquisition but also promotes cultural appreciation and understanding among learners.

In conclusion, the Translation Method has its merits and challenges, but it can be optimized through the integration of speaking and listening activities, encouraging critical thinking, contextualizing language use, and gradually transitioning to more communicative approaches. By recognizing the relevance of the Translation Method, balancing it with modern methodologies, and adapting instruction to the Indian context, we can enhance ESL learning outcomes and empower learners to become confident and proficient English speakers in their diverse and multicultural society.

Ardhendu De

References

Thompson & Wyatt (1952), Teaching of English in India Vol.8. Madras, Oxford University Press.

Analysis of "Progress" by St. John Ervine as One Act Play


"Peace hath her victories
No less renowned than war."-John Milton (1608 - 1674)


“Progress” by St. John Greer Ervine is a successful specimen of a one act play. It has not only a unity of theme (the abolition of war) the unities of time; place and action are also meticulously maintained. Thematically, “Progress”   is written against the background of the First World War in which thousands were butchered and many more became disabled for life. It left many mothers   childless and incredible number of widows and orphans. This insensible devastation has created diverse reactions in social thinking, and “Progress” by the Irish playwright St. John Greer Ervine is just the product of one of the strongest of these sentiments, namely the anti-war feeling of the post war modern age

Through the basic conflict between two ideas- the point of view of the war mongering arm dealers (represented through the character of Proof. Corrie) and that of the peace loving universal mothers of our house (represented by Mrs. Meldon) the drama has also sufficiently exposed the motive behind wars –which is to perpetuate and extend the class interest the of the war –mongering imperialists and exploiters, who sit safe and secure –far behind the fighting lines, when the poor sacrifice their lives in the trenches. The conflict is finally resolved in favour of the latter point of view through the murder of Proof.   Corrie-peace here affirms itself through a little violence; true progress, it seems, necessitates the destruction of the means of destruction. Indeed, there is a tragic severity in the revelation of Mrs.Meldon’s austere and unfathomed bereavement, which is at the same time heart –rending and awe –inspiring. Read More Drama

St. John Greer Ervine
Again, we have only three characters, and though the different stages of structural development are skillfully maintained, the action-free from anything extraneous or redundant-rushes headlong to the crisis from the very stage of the exposition. There is a surprise turn of events in the denouement, and Prof. Corrie’s murder by his sister, though tragic, is highly dramatic.  At the outset, we find Professor Corrie is talking excitedly about his destructive bomb and is busy with his experiment.  He is happy and proud as his experiment has proved a success.  His sister Mrs. Meldon is grief – stricken as she has lost her only son Eddie in the First World War.  Read More Drama She lost her husband also in the war.  Corrie advises her not to think about the past. Corrie rejoices over his invention as it can destroy a vast city in a few seconds.  He says that his invention will make war in future over in a few hours.  He is also proud that the success of the war will depend on who strikes first and what kind of weapons he uses.  Mrs. Meldon gently reminds him that his invention will lead to the death of hundreds of young men like her son Eddie.  But he ignores her words and gloats over his invention and the fame and wealth.  He says that he will sell his bomb to the government which grants him the highest amount of money. When Mrs. Meldon is convinced that her brother will not suppress his invention at any cost, she decides to do away with him along with his invention.  She destroys the sheets of paper on which Corrie has written the formulae.  Read More Drama But Corrie is not upset.  He says that the formulae remain embedded in his brain and he can reproduce them easily. Mrs. Meldon cannot tolerate his inhumanity any more.  When he stoops to pick up the sheets, she stabs him on the back with a knife and kills him.  She feels that this is justifiable revenge against the murderer of her son on the occasion of his death anniversary.

Though essentially a one-act play, Ervine’s “progress” thus leaves a lasting effect of a full length drama. Since the play has little physical action, the interest of the play is maintained by its sharp dialogue, conveying the ideological conflict of the characters. Each character has his or own individual manner and style of speech, keeping parity with the character’s bent of mind and point of view. Read More Drama The playwright, who mainly wrote for the Abbey theatre Dublin amply shows his good knowledge of stage technique. The drama may also have an autobiographical element, as the dramatist too had to go to war and face its horrors and atrocities. In fact he was severely wounded in France and eventually lost his leg. 
        Ardhendu De


Analysis of Alexander Pope's "The Rape of the Lock": Critical Appreciation

"What dire offence from am'rous causes springs,
What mighty contests rise from trivial things."

Alexander Pope (1688 - 1744)
 
The occasion of the poem Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock was the quarrel between two aristocratic Roman Catholic families. Lord petre, in a moment of youthful frolic had cut off a lock of hair from Miss Arabella’s Fermor’s head which caused a violent quarrel. The gentle satire was written to reconcile quarreling families.

Thus The Rape of the Lock was dedicated to Miss Arabelle Fermors belonging to a distinguished Catholic family. It was dedicated to her as it was to reconcile her family with that of Lord Petre who had cut off a lock hair from the lady’s head which caused a violent quarrel.

A TO Z Literary Principles from History of English Literature: Note 53




A Set of 26 Objective Questions & Answers
(UGC NET ENGLISH OBJECTIVES)
  1. Confessional Poetry -- A middle generation of 20th-century American poets emerged in the 1950s and 1960s, most of them born in the second decade of the century. Many achieved fame, including Robert Lowell, Randall Jarrell, John Berryman, Theodore Roethke, Karl Shapiro, and Delmore Schwartz. Several came to be known as confessional poets because of their use of modernist techniques to explore their own psychology and their lives. These techniques included irony, collage, verbal finish (careful attention to word choice for the effects of sound or rhythm as well as for meaning), and wide-ranging allusion.
  2.  Science Fiction-- Science Fiction, genre of fiction set in some imaginary time or place. In its original usage in the 1920s, science fiction referred to stories that appeared in cheap, so-called pulp magazines, but science fiction now appears in all media, including motion pictures, staged dramas, television programs, and video games, as well as short stories and book-length works. Science fiction is sometimes abbreviated SF.

Aesthetic Traditions and Hegelian Philosophy Combined in A.C. Bradley's Shakespearean Criticism


A Hegelian in philosophy and a follower of the aesthetic traditions of Coleridge and Hazlitt than  both A.C. Bradley was of course more scientific and methodical critic. Bradley was intensely subjective possessing candid , lively and inspired imagination trained for the type of criticism after his heart. Bradley applied the basic principle of Hegelian dialectics (conflict of forces) to Shakespeare’s tragedies and traced in them the struggle between the forces of good and evil. He was, it should be remembered, the first Shakespearean critic to investigate the nature of Tragedy with an approach that was basically interpretive. His Shakespearean criticism broadly consists of Shakespearean Tragedy where he interprets four major or principal tragedies of Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello and King Lear and his lectures on Antony and Cleopatra and The Rejection of Falstaff included in his Oxford Lectures on Poetry.

What was the nature or substance of Shakespearean Tragedy, according to Bradley? Bradley, the Hegelian, contemplated the essential nature of the universe around us and conceded that both moral commotion in the world and the conflicting universal forces are reflected in the life of Shakespeare’s tragic heroes. In contemplating the issue in this light, he was the first to come upon the essential distinction between ancient Greek tragedy and romantic Shakespearean tragedy. Dryden of course before him drew the attention to a distinction between Greek and Shakespearean tragedies but that was confined to structural aspect only. The distinctive spirit of Shakespearean tragedy might have made some impression on the earlier critics too but it was left for Bradley to give a clear and detailed utterance of that immanent distinction. Bradley unequivocally declared that “Shakespeare’s conception of tragedy or view of the tragic fact” differed basically from that of the ancient Greeks. Fate for the Greeks was all important, fate holding men as mere toys in hands while for Shakespeare the tragic core lay in “action issuing form character, or in character issuing in action’. Fate or destiny in the Greek sense does not have much to do with the life –course of a tragic hero in William Shakespeare.

After declaring the supremacy of character in Shakespearean tragedy, Bradley proceeds to hedge his statement with limitations. “The dictum that with Shakespeare, ’character is destiny’ is no doubt an exaggeration …but it is the exaggeration of a vital truth”. And he admits that “Shakespeare in most of his tragedies allows to chance or accident an appreciable influence at some point in action”. However, this chance or accident has nothing in common with the inexorable fate or destiny of the Greeks. It is not generally very important according to Bradley but it may sometimes assume alarming proportion and significance altering the whole balance against the tragic protagonist as the lost of handkerchief by Desdemona in Othello.

Regarding the application of Hegelian dialectical method (proceeding by thesis, anti-thesis and synthesis) to Shakespearean tragedy, it is only partial to the extent that Bradley sees only two types of clash or conflict in the principle tragedies of Shakespeare- the inner conflict in the soul of the tragic hero and the outward conflict. For the common auditor who is not a regular of the play, the outward struggle provides the centre of interest while the regular serious reader of Shakespeare takes an infinite interest in the inner conflict of the tragic characters.    

Extra Notes:
  1. A.C. Bradley is a Shakespearean critic belongs to the borderland between and nineteenth and twentieth century. His famous lectures on the four great tragedies of William Shakespeare were delivered at the end of the last decade of nineteenth century although those were published in book form (Shakespearean Tragedy) in 1904. This explains the reason for some scholars to claim Bradley as belonging to the twentieth century.  
  2.  Bradley is also considered the last great Romantic critic of William Shakespeare in spite of the general run of Victorian critics who had failed to develop the creative criticism of Coleridge in proper direction. Bradley’s criticism based on the aesthetic tradition of Coleridge and Hazlitt was in fact the culmination of a century of romantic thinking on William Shakespeare and his Shakespearean Tragedy remained for a whole generation the truest and profoundest book on Shakespeare criticism. It has not yet just its pride of place among the common readers.

Ref:  

Shakespearean tragedy : lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth : Bradley, A. C. (Andrew Cecil), 1851-1935 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/shakespeareantra1905brad

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