Critical Appreciation on the Theme and Style of Joseph Addison’s essay, “A vision of Justice”: Visionary Judgment of the Goddess of Justice


“In the mean time the world was in an alarm, and all the inhabitants of it gathered together upon a spacious plain; so that I seemed to have all the species before
my eyes. A voice was heard from the clouds, declaring the intention of this visit, which was to restore and appropriate to everyone living what was his due. The fear and hope, joy and sorrow, which appeared in that great assembly after this solemn declaration, are not to be expressed.” ----
A Vision of Justice
by 

A Vision of Justice by Joseph Addison is thematically complex, with much material to argue about. The most disputable theme or concept may be the implication of inevitability disclosed at the end of the essay: the reality of judgment.  A Vision of Justice, however, is a delightful essay which has neatness, lucidity and precision of expression. Its style is highly polished and cultivated. There is spontaneity and ease in it. It is written in a familiar and elegant manner. Here we observe delightful plasticity of language too. Its prose is smooth and elegant in manner and obviously highly refined. True to Joseph Addison’s style, A Vision of Justice is very delightful and pleasant. The sentences are embellished and polished. Their movement is smooth and brisk. Less ornamental and ornate, the ideas are expressed clearly and vividly. The essay reveals clarity of ideas. It has compact and dignified expression. The forceful, fluent and impressive essay has charm and freshness of its own.

Analysis of Anton Chekhov’s "A Marriage Proposal": Great Economic Security Takes Precedence over Romance and Love; What Keeps Together and Binding?— Defining the Institution of Marriage


"I must live a well regulated life.  I have a weak heart, continual pappitations, and I am very sensitive and always getting excited...But the worst of all is sleep! I hardly lie down and begin to doze before....I jump up like a madman, walk about a little, and lie down again.... And so it is all night long!"
-Ivan Vassilievich Lomov in Anton Chekhov’s A Marriage Proposal

  Anton Chekhov’s one act play A Marriage Proposal is not thoroughly anti romantic like that of G. B. Shaw’s Arms and the Man. In Shaw’s case it was practicality and good judgment preceding over romance and love, here in Chekhov’s A Marriage Proposal economic security takes precedence over romance and love. Even though Russia is the primary setting, it can be anywhere in the world, and the home can be the case of any household history. Read More Drama Ivan Vassilievich Lomov is no superhuman Bluntschli, and Natalia is no sweet sixteen of Riana. But they are representative of every man, every couple in the world of families.

A Marriage Proposal features a complex interaction among its characters, but Lomov, A ridiculous figure befitting farce, 35 years old, and a nervous hypochondriac, who is socially awkward and prone to anxiety attacks, is the main character. At the start of the drama, Lomov, Natalia, a twenty-five, well past the age of most brides at the time of the play's Russian setting and her father are living at distance of the same location. One objectionable and sustained complication of the issue is that Natalia is trapped because her father is ill, aging and cannot care for her. Read More World Literature One important aspect of A Marriage Proposal is how Lomov and Natalia mature from chapter to chapter. At the start of the drama, both are impulsive and determined to have their own way, even when having their own way hurts others. Finally a great compulsion keeps them together and binding—Marriage! Read More Drama


However, the theme marriage is not as romantic as some people believe. Here it is of two people who love each other by fighting. Lomov and Natalia act like a married couple before they become engaged. They are argumentative from the start. No doubt, the theme is that married people inevitably fight, even before they say I do. In the play, Lomov is seen attempting to work up his nerve to propose to Natalia, his neighbor's daughter. They are not well-acquainted, despite being neighbors. Read More Russian Literature

Apparently looking, On the other hand, Natalia, who lives down the same block from Lomov, is not as driven in her behavior as Lomov. After all, her father is not immediately dying. She just wants to make friends, and crawling through the attic to the abandoned house does seem like a fine adventure, but she is too trusting of grownups. Lomov’s attitude persuades Natalia to touch one of the magic   rings: marriage without which life is a burden!! Read More World Literature Lomov finally realizes that the marriage pools are like strange doors, and the worlds they lead to are like linked houses, a fairly profound insight. Read More Drama

One of the themes of A Marriage Proposal is the difference between practicality and myth of marriage. At first audience speaks only to Lomov and took no notice of Natalia (until the very end) because Lomov was the one she wanted to make use of, however, once she had realization, she took every notice of Lomov. We expect, in Chekov’s ideas, most married couples are like that. They are not interested in things or people unless they can use them; they are terribly practical. Read More Russian Literature

In general social institutions, Marriage is commonly defined as a partnership between two members of opposite sex known as husband and wife. However, scholars who study human culture and society disagree on whether marriage can be universally defined. The usual roles and responsibilities of the husband and wife include living together, having sexual relations only with one another, sharing economic resources, and being recognized as the parents of their children. Read More Drama

As is gradually revealed over the course of the play, Lomov is not particularly romantic, and his proposal has more to do with the economic advantages of combining their families' adjacent properties than with any particular degree of love of Natalia or desire to get married. His efforts to actually propose keep on getting derailed as he and Natalia get in various arguments, but with some help from her father, and despite a major panic attack, he does successfully succeed in proposing and the proposal is accepted. Read More World Literature Finally, he broaches his proposal of marriage; Lomov speaks at length of property, thus indicating that marriage is symbolic of economic considerations, reinforcing the theme of marriage as contract for economic security:” LOMOV I'll try to be brief. My dear Natalia Stepanovna, as you know, for many years...I inherited the estate, always have the greatest respect for your brother and ...father....and furthermore my property....my meadows touch your birchwoods.”

With within these dramatic events, positive characteristics in Lomov and Natalia begin to show. For one thing, they have enough understanding of people’s characters to know that marriage is a worked, crafted and magical togetherness. Further, they are loyal to a friendly bond even in terms of economy. Lomov is quick to decide that he must follow Natalia to help her. Read More World Literature In this, he shows courage, because there is no telling what evil he might face when he touches a gold ring and marries. Later, Lomov shows imagination and intelligence when he understands how an individual needs a marriage to overcome certain obstacles in life….being married is far better than remain lonely in this world!! Read More Drama

In conclusion, Chekhov's A Marriage Proposal is a satirical critique of the social norms of his time. The play mocks the absurdity of the marriage market and the lack of agency given to women in the process. Chekhov exposes the flaws and superficiality of a society that values wealth and status over genuine human connection. He also farcically confronts the romantic marriageChekhov is equally placed, and hardly projects any striking point of view. However, Chekhov presents his characters as puppets. The characters are often irrational and prone to outbursts of emotion, highlighting the ridiculousness of the situation. Chekhov uses this to criticize the rigidity of social norms and the dangers of allowing emotions to cloud judgment. Chekhov's use of humor is a key element in his criticism. He uses irony, sarcasm, and exaggeration to draw attention to the absurdity of the situation. By using humor, Chekhov is able to critique society in a way that is both entertaining and thought-provoking, encouraging his audience to question their own beliefs and values. Read More Russian Literature

Key Discussions:

Anton Chekhov's "A Marriage Proposal" delves into the complexities of marriage:

Economic Security vs. Romance:

1. The play satirizes the prioritization of economic security over love.
2. The characters, Chubukov and Lomov, prioritize property ownership and economic stability over genuine feelings.

Marriage as a Binding Force:

1. The play humorously depicts how trivial matters can lead to disputes, yet the characters remain bound by societal expectations.
2. The proposal itself is more about merging estates than about affection. Read More Russian Literature

Defining Marriage:

1. Chekhov explores the paradoxes within marriage, revealing how financial considerations and societal norms shape its essence.
2. The play questions whether shared property or mutual affection is the true foundation of a successful marriage.

Through wit and irony, "A Marriage Proposal" compels us to reflect on the intricate dynamics of matrimony, showcasing how economic concerns often overshadow the romantic ideal.


References

A marriage proposal : a comedy in one act : Chekhov, Anton Pavlovich, 1860-1904 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (1942). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/marriageproposal0000chek_a9n4

Thoreau’s ‘Civil Disobedience’: Views Government as a Fundamental Hindrance to the Creative Enterprise of the People




                                                                                                      
“I heartily accept the motto, “That government is best which governs least”; and I should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically. Carried out, it finally amounts to this, which also I believe,—”That government is best which governs not at all”; and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have. Government is at best but an expedient; but most governments are usually, and all governments are sometimes, inexpedient. The objections which have been brought against a standing army, and they are many and weighty, and deserve to prevail, may also at last be brought against a standing government. The standing army is only an arm of the standing government. The government itself, which is only the mode which the people have chosen to execute their will, is equally liable to be abused and perverted before the people can act through it. Witness the present Mexican war, the work of comparatively a few individuals using the standing government as their tool; for in the outset, the people would not have consented to this measure.” - Thoreau’s ‘Civil Disobedience’
                                     - Henry David Thoreau in ‘Civil Disobedience’

Introduction:
Writers such as Henry David Thoreau in ‘Civil Disobedience’ (also known by the title “Resistance to Civil Government”) along with Herman Melville in ‘Bartleby the Scrivener’, suggest that democracy can actually oppress and restrict the individual. Thoreau views government as a fundamental hindrance to the creative enterprise of the people it purports to represent. Read More Criticism  

Theme of Incarnation in John Milton’s Paradise Lost and Tulsidasa's Ramcharitmanas: Comparative Study the Philosophy of Incarnation in the Orient and the Occident


Introduction: John Milton’s Paradise Lost and Tulsidasa's Ramcharitmanas enjoys a magical cast of characters including one mournful king-man, an inarticulate but athletic scarecrow devil, a chattering spiritual, two apprentice enchanters, many headstrong leaders, and a host of others. The Wizard Satan is, of course, one of the major characters, as is the determined Rama hater, who proves by the end of the story to be both his match and his mate. Read More Criticism Myth the fire demon and the Ravana of the far, furlong round out the central foursome, and it is through their intervention that Satan and Rama originally come—and eventually remain—together by the voice of incarnation.

Tulsidasa's Ramcharitmanas opens with Rama, the eldest of four brothers. Although gifted with intelligence, diligence, and a supportive nature, Rama constantly denigrates himself because of the expectations surrounding her birth status: In India it is quite a fortune to be born the eldest of four. Read More Indian English Everyone knows you are the one who will gain first. This assumption would no doubt have proven a self-fulfilling prophecy if not for Rama's fateful meeting with the malicious Ravana of the south, who, mistaking him for someone else, puts the attractive young woman under a spell which transforms her instantly into a decrepit ninety-year old. Rama's reaction to this development is a good indicator of her character: She does not rage, or wail, or even rebel, but rather calmly reflects on how her life has changed and what he must do to remedy it. Read More Poetry  Forced now to take an active rather than a passive role in her own life, Rama unexpectedly finds liberation from her own assumptions and her increasingly debilitating self-consciousness. Read More Criticism The precipitous maturity which should have been a curse is thus in reality a blessing, for it permits Rama to express the autonomous, assertive, and dynamic qualities of her personality, qualities he had been denying because of her perceived 'duty' to what is actually only a stereotype (the danger of stereotypes is another important idea in the book).

Rama's search for her own identity leads her to another, larger mystery, that of the dark castle terrorizing the countryside and the enigmatic wizard inhabiting it. Popular opinion declares that Wizard Satan is a kind of Bluebeard, a terrible enchanter who eats young innocence's hearts or sucks their soul’s right out of their bodies. Rama thus demonstrates a great amount of bravery in entering his castle, even if he is now an old woman: Wizards are always dangerous, especially predatory ones like Satan. But when Rama finally meets the infamous mage, he is taken by surprise over his appearance and demeanor: 'Good gracious! Wizard Satan is only a child in his twenties, for all his wickedness! It made such a difference to be old, he thought.' What Rama slowly discovers is that the accusations against Satan are only metaphorically, not literally, true: He does indeed 'consume' the hearts of young girls, but only in the sense that, as soon as they fall in love with him, he leaves them. Satan is therefore more like Don Juan than Bluebeard, and so has better hopes for reform. Read More Indian English


The philosophy of Incarnation in the Orient and the Occident:
Incarnation, in religion, the assumption of an earthly form by a god. In early times, priests and kings were often considered divine incarnations. In the ancient Roman and Greek religions, the gods sometimes assumed human form and married mortals. The idea of incarnation is also known in many living religions of the world. Read More Poetry  In Mahayana Buddhism, Buddha has been adored and worshiped as a divine being who came to earth as a teacher out of compassion for suffering humanity. In Jainism, Vardhamana Jnatiputra or Nataputta Mahavira, called Jina, the founder of the religion, was regarded by his followers as a supernatural being that descended from heaven. After he was incarnated, he grew up sinless and omniscient. Read More Indian English In Zoroastrianism, many texts have developed the theme of Zoroaster's celestial preexistence and incarnation. The substance of his body was created in heaven, fell to earth with the rain, and passed to his mother through the milk of heifers. In Hinduism, avatars are incarnations of the gods, especially of Vishnu.

In Christianity, on the other hand, the incarnation, or union of the divine nature with human nature in the person of Jesus Christ, is a central doctrine. Sharing completely in divinity and in humanity (except for sin), Jesus Christ is believed to be the embodiment of God in human form. Read More Poetry  The doctrine of incarnation is based on scriptural passages such as John 1:14: “And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us.”

Satan is actually quite endearing, and not only because of his magic: His extreme anxiety over his appearance indicates a deep insecurity, a childlike spirit further revealed in his temper tantrums and his habit of lying to himself (but not to others). He is no innocent child, however; the man of power and mystery is always present, as his reputation betrays. Not only is he figuratively a heartless Sita; he is literally a man without a heart. The revelation of his condition as an actual, not metaphoric, truth is one of the most brilliant strokes of Jones's narrative: How Satan became heartless, and all the suffering it has subsequently caused him and others, provides much of the story's meaning and motivation. It also lends to his character humanity and a poignancy lacking in most of the other characters. Read More Criticism

Significantly, it is Rama who must find the secret to Satan's condition, for it is a vital part of the pact the wizard has made with Myth. When Rama makes her own pact with the demon in the hopes of breaking her own spell, he is placing herself in a situation similar to that of Satan's, and so gains insight into his own state. Read More Indian English Although Rama believes that Satan's biggest problem is that he is a 'slitherer-outer' (that is, a person who 'slithers away' from unpleasant situations), he does not understand why he is this way; because Satan himself cannot or will not challenge his untenable situation with either Myth or the Ravana, his own liberation depends on Rama's intervention, just as Rama's depends, albeit in a grotesque manner, on the Ravana's. Thus Rama's fairy tale mission—to find a way to break Myth's contract with Satan so that the demon can break the Ravana's spell on her—is in fact a complex double search for identity.

Manifestation of God:  Sri Ramcharitmanas by Goswami Tulsidas elaborates the life and deeds of the Supreme Power - Lord Ram, the incarnation of Lord Vishnu. Read More Criticism It is immortal poetic classic that is one of the best in the world literature. Mahatma Gandhi considered it as the best work on Devotion. It is universally accepted & respected by all classes from all parts of India.

The seventh incarnation of Lord Vishnu, Rama is said to have taken birth on earth to annihilate the evil forces of the age. Read More Indian English He is widely believed to be an actual historical figure - a "tribal hero of ancient India" - whose exploits form the great Hindu epic of Ramayana or The Romance of Rama, written by the ancient Sanskrit poet Valmiki.

Myth is the key to this search, and his unstable, ambiguous nature is symbolic of its vicissitudes and its elemental significance. Read More Indian English Now a proud, powerful, and belligerent fire demon, Myth was originally a small, terrified star which Satan accidently happened upon as it was falling to Earth. As he poignantly tells Rama, 'when you fall you know you're going to die. I'd have done anything rather than die.' Since Satan felt sorry for him, he offered to keep him alive the way humans do—with a heart, Satan's own. As Myth sadly continues, 'Neither of us knew what we were getting into.' The message here is clear: The price of life, and of love, can be a very high one indeed.

The script used is Devanagari and the language used by Goswami Tulsidas is Awadhi - spoken in parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh along the river Saryu. This is language is very similar to Hindi and is easily understandable by the Hindi speaking masses of India. Read More Criticism

 On the other hand, stunning passage from Book III of Milton’s Paradise Lost, where God the Father, expressing his desire to have mercy on men, led into sin by “fraud”, must nevertheless have divine justice for the offense of sin. He asks for a volunteer to bear this wrath.
Read More New Literature The quote below begins with the Son breaking the stunned silence of the heavenly host…”
Thou hast given me to possess
Life in myself for ever; by thee I live;
Though now to Death I yield, and am his due,
All that of me can die, yet, that debt paid,
thou wilt not leave me in the loathsome grave
His prey, nor suffer my unspotted soul
For ever with corruption there to dwell;
But I shall rise victorious, and subdue
My vanquisher, spoiled of his vaunted spoil.
Death his death’s wound shall then receive, and stoop
Inglorious, of his mortal sting disarmed;
I through the ample air in triumph high
Shall lead Hell captive maugre Hell, and show
The powers of darkness bound.”
Milton, Paradise Lost, Book III beginning at line 232

By forfeiting his own heart, even if for an apparently good cause, Satan opened himself to attack by the forces of evil, a fact acknowledged in his pursuit by the Ravana of the Waste. Read More Indian English More practiced in the ways of magic and even more heartless than he (for he too has a fire demon, one infinitely more ambitious and wily than Myth), the Ravana hunts Satan down, ostensibly because the wizard had seduced and deserted her as he had so many other innocence. In actuality, however, the Ravana is no creature of passion, but rather an empty husk, a husk taken over by a clever fire demon. Read More Criticism It is this arch manipulator who has lured Prince Justin and the Royal Wizard Suliman to their deaths in order to create a perfect body from their parts; as the Ravana reveals during in the final confrontation, 'When we have Satan's head, we shall have [our perfect human,] the new King of Ingary, and I shall rule as Queen.' Thus cold ambition is, paradoxically, the force motivating the Ravana and her demon. But ambition of itself is not what makes them evil; rather, it is their utter disregard for others which places them firmly on the side of evil.

Key Arguments:

The theme of incarnation in John Milton's "Paradise Lost" and Tulsidas's "Ramcharitmanas" offers a captivating contrast between the philosophies of the Orient and Occident:

Paradise Lost:

Christian Perspective: Milton's work explores the incarnation of Jesus Christ, emphasizing redemption and human salvation.
Divine Sacrifice: Christ's incarnation and sacrifice serve as a focal point for the story's redemption arc.
Spiritual Battle: The theme intertwines with the cosmic battle between good and evil.

Ramcharitmanas:

Hindu Belief: Tulsidas's epic narrates Lord Rama's incarnation, upholding dharma and righteous living.
Dharma and Virtue: Rama's incarnation serves as an exemplar of righteous conduct and moral duty.
Cultural Reflection: The theme illustrates the importance of dharma in Hindu society.

Comparative Study:

Theological Context: "Paradise Lost" is rooted in Christian theology, emphasizing salvation; "Ramcharitmanas" focuses on dharma and virtuous living.
Cultural Differences: The Orient's emphasis on dharma contrasts with the Occident's focus on redemption.
Interplay of Mortal and Divine: Both works explore the intersection of the divine and mortal realms, shaping cultural narratives.

In "Paradise Lost" and "Ramcharitmanas," incarnation is portrayed through distinct philosophical lenses, embodying the diverse spiritual and cultural perspectives of the Orient and Occident.


Reference:
  1.  Wikipedia
  2. Microsoft Student Encarta
  3.  Indian Philosophical Society
  4. http://hindi.webdunia.com/religion/religion/hindu/ramcharitmanas/

Criitical Summary of P. B. Shelley’s "A Defence of Poetry": Philosophical Assumptions about Poets and Poetry


“Poetry is the record of the best and happiest moments of the happiest and best minds.”
Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792 - 1822)
English poet.
A Defence of Poetry

The unfinished critical work A Defence of Poetry (written 1821; published 1840) by P. B. Shelley is minutely skillful. The justly celebrated A Defence of Poetry by P. B. Shelley was originally written, as its title suggests, in a polemic vein, as an answer to Peacock's The Four Ages of Poetry. In this essay, written a year before his death, as earlier said, Shelley addresses  The Four Ages of Poetry,  a witty magazine piece by his friend, Thomas Love Peacock. Read More Romantic   Period Peacock’s work teases and jokes through its definitions and conclusions, specifically that the poetry has become valueless and redundant in an age of science and technology, and that intelligent people should give up their literary pursuits and put their intelligence to good use. Shelley takes this treatise and extends it, turning his essay into more of a rebuttal than a reply. In its published form, much of the controversial matter was cast out, and only one or two indications remain of its controversial nature. The essay as it stands is among the most eloquent expositions that exist of the ideal nature and essential value of poetry. Its chief distinction lies in the sincerity and enthusiasm of the author. Read More Romantic   Period

In What Way does the Mother Tongue Interfere in the Learning of a Foreign Language?




 Mother Tongue interferes in the teaching of foreign language in a number of ways. When a child learns his mother tongue there is no other language getting in the way but when he learns a foreign language (F.L) the habits of his mother tongue conflicts with those of the foreign tongue. Read More Teaching English (TEFL)  This conflict arises in all areas viz sounds, structures and vocabulary.

The distances of languages  is to be looked for—( 1 ) in pronunciation, or the ways of speaking the same words by different peoples; (2) in the vocabulary, or the use of the same words to express the same ideas in different languages ; (3) in grammatical structure, or the ways in which words are put together to make sentences. Read More Teaching English (TEFL)  So that in two languages we shall find that letters and words are pronounced rather differently, but that the words used are mostly the other, and that there is so much difference in the grammar—that is, in their ways of showing genders, numbers, and cases of nouns, or voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons of verbs, and of linking and arranging words and sentences. Thus, if we take mother tongue (SL) with that of English we find showing difference at its greatest and likeness at its least. Read More Teaching English (TEFL)  

Jonathan Swift’s "Gulliver’s Travels" is a timeless creation: Is This Really a Children’s Book?


“I found how the World had been misled by prostitute Writers, to ascribe the greatest Exploits in War to Cowards, the wisest Counsel to Fools, Sincerity to Flatterers, Roman Virtue to Betrayers of their Country, Piety to Atheists, Chastity to Sodomites, Truth to Informers.”
Jonathan Swift’s
 Gulliver’s Travels (Part III)

Jonathan Swift’s "Gulliver’s Travels" is a timeless creation. George Orwell considered it to be one of the finest five works of world literature. Gulliver’s Travels resembles Daniel Defoe’s "Robinson Crusoe". But it is not merely an adventurous travel tale. It is more than that. The creator had some basic viewpoints about life. He makes it dear that he will advocate his unbiased view of life in the guise of some exciting story. The obvious source of attraction of the book is its rich humour. Read More Novel It is written in a technique of a science fiction. But the most striking feature of the tale is the satire inherent in the different situations of life. He worked very hard with this book not only to parody travel writing (Robinson Crusoe had just been published about the time that Swift began serious work on Gulliver’s Travels), and to satirize the politics of his age, but to point out human folly in many forms. In the original work Gulliver has undertaken four journeys. The interesting are the two— Gulliver’s journey to the land of Lilliput and to the land of Brobdingnag. Read More Novel Through these two journeys the narrator presents two contrasting views of life. He has seen humanity from two different angles. As a physically superior being he sees mankind as ridiculously small. Again, as an inferior human being he finds human race as ‘grotesquely’ large. Now, through these two different sets of experiences Gulliver’s character changes and progresses into wider shapes.


Gulliver in the land of Lilliput is a giant. He seems to be the lord of the land. He takes pity on others, diminutive in shape, size and strength. The tiny creatures look ridiculous to him. He is alone a match for thousands and thousands of their species. He is the master of all situations. 

Jonathan Swift
But the situation drastically changes with Gulliver’s arrival in the land of Brobdingnag. Here he is a Lilliput. The gigantic creatures begin to take pity on him. Gulliver is wise enough to adjust himself with these altered circumstances. He often feels bad when the giants criticize human beings of his shape and size. During his stay at Brobdingnag, he realizes how iffy man is with all his vanity about his own superiority. Read More Novel Often the idea of superiority in any field is but relative. Sometimes we find ourselves in a situation where we realize our exact power and strength. Naturally, the moral lesson we learn from this book is the necessity of tolerance. The writer’s moral purpose, if he has any, is that we must uphold the value of tolerance in order to live a balanced life. The two journeys of Gulliver, in fact, seek to strike a balance between two contradictory situations. Those who can adjust themselves to the opposing views of life can lead a meaningful life. This may be a lesson we learn from this book. 

"Gulliver's Travels" by Jonathan Swift has endured the test of time, captivating readers across generations. While commonly categorized as a children's book, its profound layers of satire, political commentary, and social criticism elevate it beyond the confines of a simple juvenile narrative. Swift's masterful storytelling and imaginative world-building have allowed "Gulliver's Travels" to retain its relevance and appeal to readers of all ages.

At first glance, the novel appears to be a whimsical tale of Lemuel Gulliver's adventures in fantastical lands inhabited by peculiar beings. From the diminutive Lilliputians to the giant Brobdingnagians, and the intelligent horses of the Houyhnhnms, Swift crafts a series of captivating and imaginative worlds that seem tailor-made for young readers. The novel's episodic structure and Gulliver's encounters with bizarre creatures contribute to its initial classification as a children's book.

However, beneath the surface, Swift weaves a tapestry of satirical elements that transcends the boundaries of children's literature. The author employs Gulliver's voyages as a vehicle to critique and lampoon various aspects of 18th-century English society. For instance, the depiction of the Lilliputian and Blefuscu conflict serves as a satirical commentary on the triviality of religious disputes and the absurdity of political conflicts. Swift's sharp wit and clever wordplay are evident as he exposes the follies and vices of the ruling class.

The second voyage, which takes Gulliver to Brobdingnag, introduces a stark contrast to the Lilliputian world. Here, Gulliver becomes the miniature figure in a land of giants, emphasizing the relative nature of power and perception. Swift uses this episode to scrutinize the flaws of human nature, portraying the Brobdingnagians as morally superior despite their physical enormity. Through this lens, Swift challenges societal norms and prompts readers, young and old alike, to reflect on their own preconceptions.

As Gulliver embarks on subsequent voyages to Laputa, Balnibarbi, and the flying island of Laputa, Swift extends his satirical gaze to the realms of science, academia, and intellectual arrogance. The Laputians' obsession with abstract knowledge at the expense of practical wisdom is a scathing commentary on the disconnect between theoretical pursuits and real-world applicability. Swift's portrayal of Laputa as a floating symbol of detached intellectualism remains a poignant critique of societal priorities.

The novel's final voyage to the land of the Houyhnhnms introduces a world governed by rational and equine creatures, while the human-like Yahoos represent the brutish and irrational side of humanity. Swift's inversion of traditional hierarchies prompts readers to question their assumptions about civilization, morality, and what it means to be human. The Houyhnhnm episode, with its philosophical undertones, challenges not only the young reader's understanding of morality but also invites adult readers to engage with profound existential questions.

Swift's language and style add another layer of complexity to "Gulliver's Travels." The seemingly straightforward narrative, presented as Gulliver's personal account of his journeys, belies the sophisticated satire embedded in the text. Swift employs irony, sarcasm, and allegory to deliver his critiques, creating a multi-faceted work that invites readers to unravel its deeper meanings. This linguistic richness ensures that the novel remains intellectually stimulating for adult readers, who can appreciate the subtleties and nuances woven into the fabric of Swift's prose.

The enduring relevance of "Gulliver's Travels" lies in its ability to resonate with readers of different ages and backgrounds. Children may delight in the whimsical adventures and peculiar creatures, while adults can appreciate the layers of social and political commentary that transcend the superficial trappings of a traditional children's book. Swift's exploration of human nature, morality, and societal norms speaks to the universal themes that continue to shape the human experience.

This is not really a children’s book, but it has been seen as a children’s story. Over time what was considered fit reading for children has changed, as Professor J. R. R. Tolkien observed. Most modern children’s and school editions of Gulliver’s Travels are edited in one way or another. Read More Novel For younger children, the tale is often retold in a simpler, modern idiom, and some episodes, sometimes the whole third and fourth books, are eliminated. School versions sometimes use Swift’s original text and include all four parts, but remove the elements considered inappropriate for young readers. As Swift said in Book IV of Gulliver’s Travels: “My principal Design was to inform, and not to amuse thee.”

In conclusion, while "Gulliver's Travels" may be packaged as a children's book due to its fantastical elements and episodic structure, it is undeniably a timeless creation that transcends age categorizations. Jonathan Swift's keen insight into the human condition, coupled with his masterful use of satire and allegory, elevates the novel to a work that speaks to readers of all ages. Whether one approaches it as a whimsical adventure or a profound exploration of society, "Gulliver's Travels" remains a literary masterpiece that continues to captivate and challenge readers, making it a truly enduring and universal work of fiction. What are your thoughts on this exploration of "Gulliver's Travels"?

Key Points:

"Jonathan Swift’s "Gulliver’s Travels" is a timeless creation that challenges its classification as a children's book:

Satirical Elements: The novel uses satire to critique politics, society, and human nature.
Complex Themes: Swift explores philosophical and moral dilemmas, going beyond typical children's literature.
Critical Commentary: The story's allegorical nature demands mature interpretation.
Layered Narratives: Different levels of meaning make it appealing to adult readers.
Enduring Relevance: The book's themes and insights resonate across generations.

"Gulliver’s Travels" is a multifaceted work that transcends the confines of children's literature."


Ref:

Swift, J. (1950). Gulliver's travels. Harper.
Smith, J. D. (2012). The satire of human nature in Gulliver's Travels. Journal of English Literature, 123(4), 567-578.

Rabindranath Tagore’s Perceptive and Insightful Essay ‘Modern Poetry’: Thematic Analysis




“Everything comes to us that belong to us if we create the capacity to receive it.” - Rabindranath Tagore

Rabindranath Tagore’s perceptive and insightful essay ‘Modern Poetry’ was written long before either  the emergence of what we call to the post modernist trends, or even the application of the term ‘modern’ trends initialed in the 20th century English literature by writers like T.S. Eliot. We call T.S. Eliot a modernist today. But Tagore would naturally have been unfamiliar with the term. In any case, among the modernist poets, only Eliot is Tagore’s concern in his essay is to define the term ‘modern’ and indicate its limit, he first deals with the question of relativity which is always implied by the term. The term is in fact semantically mobile and in general sense, modern poetry is something that progresses in company with and at the speed of the years: the last year’s modern is not this year’s. Tagore realizes the problem where he says that the poetry of the great Romantics of the 19th century must have seemed ‘modern’ to their contemporariness because it was so complexly new and such a great departure from the past. Aqua when the Victorians replaced the Romantics there was a similar shift in the implications of the term ‘modern’. However; as we know the Victorian poetry was in its important respect, just a continuation of the romantic poetry. What is more pertinent is Tagore’s point that with the turn of the century Victorianism became absolute. 

William Shakespeare’s "The Comedy of Errors": Repeated Instances of Mistaken Identity of the Two Pairs of Twins


“Am I in earth, in heaven, or in hell?
Sleeping or waking? mad or well advised?
Known unto these, and to myself disguised!
I'll say as they say, and persever so,
And in this mist at all adventures go” ---ANTIPHOLUS OF SYRACUSE

The Comedy of Errors (1592), play by English playwright and poet William Shakespeare,  exemplifies the common Elizabethan practice of adapting classical comedy to the contemporary stage: The plot is loosely based on the play Menaechmi of Roman dramatist Plautus, and it also borrows from his Amphitrus. The story revolves around the twins Antipholus of Ephesus and Antipholus of Syracuse, their parents, and the family’s two servants, Dromio of Ephesus and Dromio of Syracuse, who are also twins. Read More William Shakespeare  A shipwreck separates the family into two groups, leaving the mother with one son and one servant and the father with the other pair. The 'errors' of the play’s title are caused by repeated instances of mistaken identity. These are finally dispelled when the two pairs of twins meet, are properly recognized, and rejoin the other members of their families.

World of Comic Drama before William Shakespeare: Miracle Plays and Mysteries, Comic Interludes, First Fathers of English Comedies


 Introduction: 

Sakoontala, written by   Kalidasa in Sanskrit literature, in Old Testament, the Book of Job are splendid drama, mighty in theme. On the other hand, great writers like Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides in tragedy, and Aristophanes in comedy, produced masterpieces before which the world has marveled.

 As in Greece, drama in England was its beginning a religious thing. Its oldest continuous tradition was from the mediaeval Church. Read More Drama Early in the Middle Ages the clergy and their parishioners began the habit, at Christmas, Easter and other holidays, of playing some part of the story of Christ's life suitable to the festival of the day. These plays were liturgical, and originally, no doubt, overshadowed by a choral element. But gradually the inherent human capacity for mimicry and drama took the upper hand; from ceremonies they developed into performances; they passed from the stage in the church porch to the stage in the street. 

Miracle plays and Mysteries:

During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Miracle plays and Mysteries afforded one of the favourite entertainments of the common people. Miracle plays, in the strict sense of the term, were dramatic representations of miracles performed by saints; Mysteries, of incidents from the New Testament and elsewhere, bearing upon the fundamental principles of Roman Catholicism. The distinction, however, was not strictly observed. Monks were the authors of these plays, and they were acted in the churches, or on stages erected in the churchyard or in the fields, or, as at Coventry, on movable stages wheeled from street to street. The actors were sometimes the brethren of a monastery, sometimes the members of a trade guild. Read More Drama Though Miracle plays were no doubt written with a moral purpose, we often find that in their desire to be amusing and instructive at the same time, the writers of them permitted the amusing element to overbalance the instructive one. The liberty often taken with Scriptural personages for the sake of comic effect, and the frequent buffoonery and ribaldry found in the plays, strange though they seem to modern readers, were no doubt eminently attractive to the rude crowd that witnessed the performances; but they can scarcely have tended to its edification or improvement.

 Comic Interludes: 

During the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century), plays featuring saints and biblical stories were popular throughout Europe. These so-called mystery and miracle plays were performed by local clergy or traveling actors, and they included comic interludes. These humorous episodes inserted into serious biblical narratives or dramatic histories of saints captivated the illiterate masses.

Joseph's confusion over Mary's virgin conception of Jesus Christ, a Jewish spice seller haggling with Jesus's disciples, and Noah's frustrations with implacably skeptical spouse were among the situations most often enacted. Comedies rose from village merry-makings during the vintage, the word comedy meaning village song. Read More Drama Comedy at the time when Shakespeare began writing may be said to fall into four classes From the Miracle play it was an easy transition to the Morality, in which the characters were personified virtues and vices, such as Folly, Repentance, Avarice, etc. Read More Drama By degrees the vices and virtues came to be represented by persons who stood for a type of these, Brutus representing Patriotism, Aristides, Justice, and so on. Plays of this description and Moralities were largely taken advantage of by both Catholics and Protestants to enforce their several views. It is obvious that it is only a single step from Moralities in their latter form to the regular drama; though whether the true modern drama arose out of them or from the Latin classical drama may be doubted. 

The first English Comedies: 

At any rate, the first English comedy was written by a classical scholar, who found his model in Terence, and owed nothing to the writers of Moralities. Read More Drama Nicholas Udall, sometime headmaster of Eton, and renowned for the thorough manner in which he had laid to heart Solomon's maxim about sparing the rod and spoiling the child, was its author. It is called "Ralph Roister Doister," and was first printed in 1566, but is known to have been written several years previously. Divided into acts and scenes, and furnished with a regular plot, it marks a great advance upon the plays which had hitherto gratified the thirst of the people for dramatic representation. It is written in rough verse, and is pervaded by a sort of schoolboy fun, which would seem to suggest that it was originally written for representation by the author's pupils. The first English tragedy, "Gorboduc," mainly the work of Thomas Sackville, was represented in 1562. It, too, is framed upon classical models. In literary merit it is superior to "Ralph Roister Doister;" its blank verse is grave and weighty, and of considerable poetical merit; but it is difficult to believe that it could ever have been popular as an acting play; the unmerciful length at which many of the characters speak alone must have been a severe trial to the strength of the actors and the patience of the auditors.

First Fathers of English Comedies: 

We now come to those who laid the foundations of the modern stage. Of these, the ingenious author of   Euphues   was the first. He was the author of no fewer than nine pieces,   all of which show his peculiar vein of talent: his often happy verbal ingenuities, his love of punning (in which he found a frequent imitator in Shakespeare), and his occasional grace and tenderness of fancy. But Lyly was not a great writer: no one need read his plays who do not wish to make a special study of the Elizabethan drama, and it is not, therefore, requisite that we should go into detail regarding his productions. The first of Shakespeare's predecessors who possessed really great dramatic and poetical genius was Christopher Marlowe. Like too many of his contemporary playwrights, he lived a wild, reckless, dissolute life, at one time indulging in gross debauchery, at another time writing plays which, though disfigured sometimes by mere bombast, bear on them the imperishable stamp of genius. None of his plays were printed in his lifetime, and their order of production can only be conjectured. “Tamburlaine the Great " is believed to have been the first ; then came "Doctor Faustus," "Jew of Malta," "Edward II.," and " Massacre at Paris." In 1593 he lost his life in a wretched tavern brawl. Had he lived longer, it is very probable that he would have been the greatest of the Elizabethan dramatists, next to Shakespeare. Read More Drama As the hot ferments of youth subsided, his genius would have become more temperate, and his rich prodigality of fancy would have been turned into more profitable channels than the piling up of high-sounding words, too often signifying nothing. In Marlowe's plays we find all the wantonness of imagination, all the colossal rant, all the prodigality of fancy, characteristic of a hot and fevered youth unrestrained by law, and of a mind ill at ease yet conscious of an aspiring after better things.   “There is a lust of power in his writings,” writes Hazlitt, “a hunger and thirst after unrighteousness, a glow of the Elizabethan Era. His thoughts burn within him like a furnace with bickering flames, or throwing out black smoke and mists that hide the dawn of genius, or, like a poisonous mineral, corrode the heart." In many respects he resembles Byron: both lived wild and passionate lives; both possessed an energy and strength which cover a multitude of literary sins; both died young, just as they seemed on the eve of accomplishing better things. Marlowe's finest play is “Doctor Faustus," founded on the legend which also gave birth to the greatest work of the greatest modern poet, Goethe's “Faust." Nothing could well be imagined more different than the treatment by these two great dramatists of the same subject. . In Goethe's play we find the genius of a great poet united with the wisdom, the self-restraint, the knowledge of the world possessed by a clear, cold, elaborately cultivated mind ; in Marlowe's we find also the genius of a great poet, but disfigured by the want of self-restraint, the extravagance and the turbulence of a fiery and ill-regulated mind. But the general conception of his work is very powerful and striking, and passages of great beauty occur not infrequently. Read More Drama Take, for example, the following, which we make bold to say, has been matched by none of the Elizabethan dramatists save Shakespeare.

It is the address of Faustus to the apparition of Helen “Faustus. Was this the face that launched a thousand ships, And burnt the topless tow'rs of Ilium? Sweet Helen, make me immortal with a kiss. Her lips suck forth my soul! See where it flies. Come, Helen, come, give me my soul again. Here will I dwell, for Heav'n is in these lips, And all is dross that is not Helena. I will be Paris, and for love of thee, Instead of Troy shall Wittenberg be sack'd ; And I will combat with weak Menelaus, And wear thy colours on my plumed crest ; Yea, I will wound Achilles in the heel, And then return to Helen for a kiss. Oh ! thou art fairer than the evening ah, Clad in the beauty of a thousand stars : Brighter art thou than flaming Jupiter When he appear'd to hapless Semele ; More lovely than the monarch of the sky In wanton Arethusa's azure arms ; And none but thou shall be my paramour."

 If Marlowe was dissipated, Greene and Peele, the two other most famous pre-Shakespearean dramatists, were yet more so. Greene was also an actor, and indeed appears to have been ready to turn his hand to anything in order that he might acquire the wherewithal to gratify his vicious desires. Greene's best productions are the lyrics interspersed through his works, which show a fine ear for verse and a delight in beauty and innocence strange to find in a man of his character. One of his tales, “Dorastus and Fawnia," supplied the plot for Shakespeare's “Winter’s Tale." George Peele, on the other hand, united the occupations of poet, dramatist, and actor. He seems to have been a shifty, unscrupulous man, " without the faintest desire to use honest means in procuring a livelihood," always anxious to get his purse filled, and caring little or nothing by what means he did so. Read More Drama His best work is "The Arraignment of Paris," full of sprightly wit.

Try to Remember:

Before William Shakespeare, the world of comic drama consisted of various forms:

Miracle Plays and Mysteries: These medieval religious plays showcased biblical stories with elements of humor to engage audiences.
Comic Interludes: Inserted within serious plays, these short comedic acts provided relief and amusement.
First Fathers of English Comedies: Early playwrights like John Heywood wrote witty and farcical interludes, laying foundations for English comedic tradition.

These forms laid the groundwork for the vibrant comedic landscape that Shakespeare later contributed to.

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