Dylan Thomas’s Language in ‘Poem in October’ Follows the ‘Grammar of Dreams’: Way of Construction of Sentences in the Poem



 The language that Thomas uses to dress the thoughts of his poems has always drawn the attention of critics, admirers, and readers alike. Had they been written in the normal way, ordinary people would have found no difficulty in understanding the strands of his thoughts. But they have been written in a way which makes their meanings very difficult to the uninitiated. The poet’s careless attitude to grammatical rules, his attempt to see past and present simultaneously, his belief at the unity of man and nature and of death and life, his projection of matters in a surrealistic way (i.e. in a dream-like manner), and his greater emphasis to unrealistic things and creations of the imagination have indeed made his poetry very difficult to understand. Noting this, a critic has commented that his poems follow the ‘grammar of dreams’ and that his remarkable poem ‘poem in October’ is one such poem.

Before we proceed to discuss this matter we shall have to be clear as regards the implications of the two important terms used here—‘dreams’ and ‘grammar’. The word ‘dream’ has been variously explained in the lexicons. But all of them have laid emphasis on certain elements of the dream—it’s unrealistic nature, its capacity to hold us under some spell, and its ability to relate some impossible things. The word ‘grammar’ obviously has been used in the sense of ‘rules’. So the phrase ‘grammar of dreams’ suggests an attempt to put some unrealistic, impossible and fictionalized things under some control so that they may appear to be romantic and acceptable, and not something wild and unbelievable, and hence worthy of being rejected.

Let us first come down to the way of construction of sentences in the poem. The first sentence that comes to a stop after ten lone and short lines is a classic example of the manner of writing that Thomas preferred. The poet does not say that he woke up but that his thirtieth year woke up; the complicity here is, however, doubled when he says that it was not simply his thirtieth year but his ‘thirtieth year to heaven’. Allan Rodway remarks: ‘The first stanza notably lacks grammar and punctuation. What is more, no ingenuity of punctuation would put it into logical or grammatical order.’ Since the poem develops in an atmosphere of dream, it will be too much for us if we seek nothing but logic in it. So let us seek out those areas where the poem’s affinity with dream is sufficiently clear.

In the first stanza the dream element plays its part when the morning and not any human being beckon him to come out. What is more he at once responds to its call. In the second we mark it when water-birds and birds of ‘winged trees’ begin to wave his, name (possibly written on a banner) as they fly ‘above the farms and the white horses’ (their introduction, we must admit, is too quick for reality to welcome, although such is quite possible in a dream-like situation). Now we find him walking abroad ‘in a shower of all my days’. What this means in terms of reality is hard to explain. But it does not appear impossible in a dream for it merely signifies a kind of shower representative of all his showers of the past as well as of the present. Here, again, the gates of the town close as he crosses its border, but the difficulty arises when we hear of the waking of the town at the same time. A town waking with its entrances closed can only take place in a dream and not reality, and therefore we shall have to assume that this closure of gates is not real but psychological.

In the third stanza the dream element is quite prominent. The poet sees a cloud full of larks and the roadside bushes have whistling blackbirds in plenty. They obviously bring in the spring season. Again, on the hill’s shoulder he senses in the sun a temperature which is ‘summery’ in its pleasantness. Apart from these two pleasant seasons he has already experienced autumn rain in the town and cold wintry wind in the wood faraway. The coexistence of all the four seasons at the same time and almost in the same place can take place, needless to say, in a dream alone.

Key Highlights:

Dreamlike Syntax:
  1. Thomas's "Poem in October" employs a syntax reminiscent of dream logic.
  2. Sentences flow with a surreal, non-linear structure, resembling the fragmented nature of dreams.
Fragmentation and Imagery:
  1. The poem's sentences are often broken, mirroring the disjointed quality of dreams.
  2. Vivid imagery enhances the dreamlike atmosphere, blurring reality and imagination.
Temporal Ambiguity:
  1. The poem's syntax disrupts conventional time progression.
  2. It echoes the fluidity of dreams where past, present, and future intertwine.
Emotional Resonance:
  1. The dreamlike syntax deepens emotional impact.
  2. Sentences build a sense of introspection and nostalgia, characteristic of dreamscapes.
Subjective Experience:
  1. The unique sentence structure invites readers into the poet's internal world.
  2. The 'grammar of dreams' evokes a personalized, intimate journey through memory and emotion.
Dylan Thomas's "Poem in October" employs dreamlike syntax to construct a lyrical landscape that mirrors the enigmatic and emotional nature of dreams, inviting readers into the heart of the poet's introspective journey.

In light of our experience, the common difficulties we face in teaching English to our pupils: the psychological principles applied to the teaching of English


The teacher of English generally faces certain difficulties in connection with the teaching of it. Primarily any of the teaching English class aims @
a) To develop receptive and productive language skills
b) To improve the students’ language skills (speaking, listening, reading, writing)
c) To expand vocabulary and to develop grammatical competence
d) To improve speech and oral competence
e) To develop paragraph, essay and letter writing skills
f) To use contemporary English forms in speech and writing

To achieve the aims above, English teachers have some overall objectives. Each unit class also has objectives. These will guide the students in your study. They are usually stated at the beginning of the each model class and when the students are through with studying the model classes go back and read the objectives. This would help the students assimilate the task the students have set out to achieve. On completion of the extensive creative style of teaching, the students should be able to:
 a) Extend students’ knowledge of English grammar in certain key areas. 
b) Make students aware of the underlying system of Modern English grammar in contemporary usage
 c) Equip students with strategies to deal with areas of contemporary English usage that may be encountered in real life situations not dealt with on the extensive creative style of teaching).
d) Enable students to reflect on and appreciate the forms of contemporary English usage as objects of intellectual development.
e) Enable students to understand and explain why certain forms are unacceptable in contemporary English usage.
f) Enable students to manipulate the basic written, grammatical and technical structures of contemporary English usage.
 g) Provide students with the grammatical concepts and meta-language forms that will prepare them for latter extensive creative style of teachings.

To complete the extensive creative style of teaching, the students are required to read the study model classes and other related materials. The students will also need to undertake practical exercises for which the students need a pen, a notebook, and other materials that will be listed in this guide. The exercises are to aid the students in understanding the concepts being presented. At the end of each model class, the students will be required to submit written assignments for assessment purposes. At the end of the extensive creative style of teaching, the students will write a final examination. The major materials the students will need for this extensive creative style of teaching are:
1. The Extensive creative style model
2. The Study model class set ups
3. The Relevant textbooks including the ones listed under each model class
4. The Assignment file
5. The Presentation schedule

While teaching these common selective principles should be kept in mind:
  1. English as a foreign language differs to a great extent from any of the Indian languages in various respects. So a special method is required for its teaching. But for a long time there was the want of the right kind of method for the teaching of English and this made the teacher’s task very difficult.
  2.  With the introduction of various subjects in the reorganize pattern, and change in the medium of instruction, the time available for the teaching of English has been very short. Moreover, since the other subjects in the curriculum are too bookish and theoretical, more time is required for their teaching. 
  3.  In most of the cases the teacher has no clear idea about the standard of achievement in the subject. He does not know what type of work should be done and what method should, be followed at a particular stage. The standard to be aimed at is generally pitched very high. As a result, there is an unnecessary wastage of time producing most disastrous result. 
  4.  The old speech habits in the mother tongue generally interfere with the formation of new speech habits. So it is very difficult to form the new speech habits in the children. In reading or speaking English, words are pronounced in the peculiar way in which the words in the mother tongue are pronounced. So it is very difficult for the pupils to practice pronunciation, phrasing, accentuation, intonation etc, peculiar to English. 
  5. The modes of expression in the mother tongue sometimes influence the modes of expressions in English and as a result the pupil has a tendency, to fall back into vernacularisms e.g. leg-fingers for toe. He says good English for he speaks good Hindi- which are very difficult to eradicate. 
  6.   Though we follow different modern process and method to read and write but the natural sequence and opportunity that the students avail in acquiring their mother tongue will not be observed in case of learning foreign language by innumerable students. That is why, in reality we see that at the first stage of learning English we cannot move a single step without the help of mother tongue. We are reminded of Tagore in this respect, —profound knowledge of Bengali would only be a great assistance in learning English [translated). He used to think that, if writing in mother tongue becomes easy, ‘and then if, other language is acquired in due course, it will not be difficult to pen that down confidently. It is not necessary to prepare a covering carefully with the general English usages. Tagore has expressed in various contexts that learning of mother tongue comes first and then foreign language would be taught together with the assistance of mother language. 
  7. Pupils should be given enough practice in acquiring a particular skill so that the repeated exercise of a learning bond may increase its strength; the lack of exercise will decrease it. 
  8.  Pupils should be given ample scope for application of the newly learnt skill which will lead them to perfection. 
  9.  Students should practice correct forms of the language. 
  10.  The principle of Transfer of Training has a definite place in teaching English in that the mother-tongue and English have may identical elements in them. 
  11.  There is still a great dearth of specially prepared text books containing suitable subject matters, vocabulary and sentence patterns with proper gradation and arrangement. 
  12. The defective system of examination encourages cramming in the children and forces the teacher to discard the modern techniques of teaching and fall back upon the stereotyped method. 
  13.  The strength in the class is generally so large that it is practically impossible for the teacher either to give individual drill or to correct the composition work of the children. 
  14.  The standard of achievement in English, specially is rural areas, is very low and in most of the cases the unqualified teachers in the hands of whom the task of teaching English is placed in the early stages, are greatly responsible for it.  

Addressing Common Difficulties in Teaching English: Applying Psychological Principles

Language Anxiety:
  1. Pupils often face anxiety about speaking English.
  2. Applying gradual exposure and positive reinforcement helps build confidence.
Lack of Motivation:
  1. Motivation to learn English varies among pupils.
  2. Incorporating real-life situations and interests in lessons fosters intrinsic motivation.
Cognitive Overload:
  1. Complex grammar and vocabulary overwhelm learners.
  2. Chunking information, using visuals, and repetition aid memory retention.
Fear of Errors:
  1. Fear of making mistakes hinders communication.
  2. Creating a supportive environment that values learning over perfection encourages risk-taking.
Ineffective Learning Strategies:
  1. Students might lack efficient study techniques.
  2. Teaching effective strategies like note-taking, self-assessment, and active engagement enhances learning.
Applying psychological principles like positive reinforcement, intrinsic motivation, and cognitive strategies addresses the psychological barriers that hinder English language learning, creating a conducive learning environment for pupils.

Critical Appreciation of Robert Browning’s "Meeting at Night” :Serious Theme of Love in Quite Dramatic Way

Apart from Tennyson, the word “lyric” again came up in the poem of Robert Browning in 1842 in a volume called “Dramatic Lyrics”. Browning became more famous when he ran away with a female poet, of the century, Elizabeth Barrett Browning with whom they live in Italy for many years. His "Meeting at Night” is smart in technical (two stanza rhyme scheme ABCCBA ABCCBA) and skillful use of language to discuss serious theme of love in quite dramatic way, and this poem is an emblem of his passionate deal with his beloved.

 Robert Browning’s "Meeting at Night” (which has its sister poem "Parting at Morning”) describe the journey of a lover through sea and land to meet his beloved. We are also given to understand that the beloved also waits eagerly for the lover and the meeting at night is a moment of fulfillment the wish of both.  In the half moon of the night, the sea looks grey while the land looks black.

With the yellow moon visible in the sky, which looks large and low, the narrator sails towards the land in a boat. The waves look like flaming ringlets in the moonlight. The narrator secures his boat in the slushy land. Then he walks through the beach which is a mile in length. He also crosses three fields and reaches the farmhouse of his beloved. He reaches the place just to feel the presence of his beloved. Loaded with images that enhance the sensuousness of the narrative poem are those of the "grey sea", " long black land", "yellow half moon", "startled... waves", "slushy sand", "warm sea scented beach", and "three fields" together make the description enchanting, adventurous, passionate, daring and sensuous. It tells the longing desire of the couple to meet one another. The narrator makes a great effort to overcome all the obstacles in the way and is rewarded with a meeting with his beloved. With these images and with the daring effort of the narrator, the poet brings home the truth: Amor Vince Omnia which means love conquers all:
“The grey sea and the long black land;
And the yellow half-moon large and low;
And the startled little waves that leap
In fiery ringlets from their sleep,
As I gain the cove with pushing prow,
And quench its speed i' the slushy sand.”

Enchanting and romantic is the meeting scene. The night is also enchanting with a yellow half moon which makes the sea look grey and the land look dark. It is the time when there is nobody around and only those who have a mission to accomplish venture out. There is a cove and slushy sand which is followed by a warm sea scented beach:
“Then a mile of warm sea-scented beach;
Three fields to cross till a farm appears;”

The darkness of the land has ignited the passion of the lovers who meet secretly under the cover of the night. In the second stanza, he mentions the 'sea-scented beach,' which ties to our sense of smell, reminding us of the smell of the salty air by the beach. The speaker goes on to describe how he travels on the beach then through fields where he arrives at a farm and taps on the window, mentioning a 'quick sharp scratch,' which we can almost hear by reading those words:
“A tap at the pane, the quick sharp scratch
And blue spurt of a lighted match,
And a voice less loud, thro' its joys and fears,
Than the two hearts beating each to each!”

 The mention of fear could be hinting at the fact that Elizabeth's father, who disliked Robert Browning, could find out about this secretive meeting. Though the actual meeting is described in only the last four lines, it has been done so with great mastery of description which makes them intensely passionate and exciting. The joy and excitement of the meeting is represented by the beating of their hearts together.

Key Highlights:

Dramatic Romanticism:
  1. Browning's "Meeting at Night" masterfully blends dramatic intensity with romantic themes.
  2. The poem unfolds like a scene from a play, creating vivid imagery and emotional resonance.  
Symbolic Journey:
  1. The speaker's journey across sea and land symbolizes the lengths one would go for love.
  2. The night setting adds an air of secrecy and urgency to the narrative.
Sensory Detail:
  1. Browning's descriptive language engages the senses, evoking the ambiance of the night and the elements.
  2. Vivid imagery immerses readers in the speaker's experience.
Love’s Power:
  1. The poem delves into the transformative power of love, inspiring the speaker's bold journey.
  2. The meeting becomes a symbol of love's ability to transcend obstacles.
Depth in Simplicity:
  1. Browning's concise verses hold layers of emotion and meaning.
  2. Through simplicity, he conveys the complexity of human emotions and the significance of love.
"Meeting at Night" captures love's intensity through a dramatic narrative and evocative imagery, showcasing Browning's prowess in expressing profound themes in compact verses.

Starting Point of English in India: When to Start English Seriously for the Children?


“Language is the primary and most highly elaborated form of human symbolic activity…made up of symbols made by sounds produced by the vocal apparatus….” (A. A Hill)

India, where English is needed as purely imposed social condition, a parent often raises a question when he should start English seriously for his child. The answers to such questions are variables and contradictory. As we cannot go for immediate social changes, we can accept the verdict that we should accept English as and when it comes and we cannot go for compromises in the salary. 

It should be clear to you now that English in India is needed in all areas of human life. When we talk about the domains of English in India, roughly we mean the fields or areas of activities of English usage: The fields or areas of activities of English use as well as the intensity of used in the status accorded the India. Therefore, the status accorded English in India is not inherently linguistic. This is to say that English in India status is determined by factors other than linguistic. Linguistically, there is no language in India that is superior to another except Sanskrit which is the mother of all modern Indian languages. But social, political, historical, economic, demographic etc factors will spell the status given to English in India. Why do you think this is so? It will be well to observe also that the age and the manner of acquisition of usage will also define the status of the English in India.

 The greatest factor is the rising middle-class and the so called semi conditioned English medium schools. Of course, there is another saying that goes round together with this is the westernization of Indian culture. However, the basic and the observation show that the children can pick up the English in India more easily if they are introduced to them at an early age. And both the schools and go west culture wind the balloons. But in this context, it should be kept in mind that the decision is conditionally true. A student can spontaneously learn English in India when he gets the opportunity of learning, speaking and understanding the English in his own natural environment.

As the case may be when in the largest part of the Indian subcontinent there is no natural environment to learn English or any other foreign language and where the learning of second English in India is confined to classroom, in that case, it is better to start learning English only after a student has developed a great deal of knowledge in his mother tongue. Otherwise he will not learn anything—neither the mother tongue nor the English. This wastage had been prevalent in the sphere of education for a long time. Students are trapped by mammy daddy and hi hello. This kind of national wastage is limitless if the education of a certain section is valued by the controller of education instead of mass education. Isn’t it justified then to start English seriously at the end of the natural environmental elementary stage and at the onset of schooling? That is from Age 5+.

Today, in many parts of the world the English is used as a second language. This is exactly the situation in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Singapore, Sierra-Leone, among others. In India, the English language is not a first language. Rather, languages such as Hindi, Tamil, Telegu, Bangla and so on are first languages or mother tongues or indigenous languages. But the English language is the first language or mother tongue in places like Britain, the United States, Australia, most of Canada and New Zealand. Where English is used as a second language, it develops its own peculiar characteristics different from those of English as a first language. Such characteristics manifest in the areas of pronunciation, lexis and semantics, and to some extent, grammar (Syntax). Let us note that English has a wide, global spread; it is used as either first or second or foreign language in most parts of the world. So start of English is inevitable and ways to swiftest lessons are under the scanner.

 The teaching of English which starts from the age of 5+, that is, the primary education can be regarded as the beginning of the formal education. Thus teaching of English should be organized based on compatible teachers, school and curriculum and syllabus on the basis of scientific method. Children are exposed to the new horizon while gathering English knowledge by reading. That is why in this stage of teaching of English greater stress is given on reading and writing. Prior to the invention of writing and alphabets, imparting knowledge had been rendered through listening-process. But together with the extension of knowledge it became very difficult to store and spread the store house of knowledge. People solved this problem by inventing the art of writing, alphabets, and new words and with the gradual development of language. That is why in teaching of English, especially at the primary stage, writing and reading started getting equal status together with listening and speaking. Through reading and writing, the student becomes more powerful with the forms of knowledge—its acquisition-relation and distribution.

Key Highlights:

Early Exposure:
  1. English education in India traditionally starts around primary school.
  2. Early exposure to English through stories, songs, and basic vocabulary aids familiarity.
Cognitive Development:
  1. Some experts advocate starting English education around ages 4-6.
  2. Early cognitive development benefits from bilingual exposure.
Balancing Languages:
  1. Parents and educators should balance English with the child's native language.
  2. Native language proficiency enhances cognitive skills and cultural identity.
Practical Considerations:
  1. Socio-economic factors influence access to quality English education.
  2. Curriculum design should consider local context and resources.
Holistic Approach:
  1. A holistic approach integrating English learning with other subjects promotes well-rounded development.
  2. Starting English early enhances language acquisition and cross-cultural understanding.
Choosing the starting point for English education in India should consider cognitive development, cultural preservation, and practicality, ensuring a well-rounded foundation for children.


Ref:   Encarta, Wikipedia
Ref:   Encarta  , Wikipedia

How is the study of social history along with history of English literature essential part of reading texts?


The study of social history along with history of English literature is essential part of reading texts. This is a step in right direction, for literature is closely associated with the general activities of men in a particular age. Literature has social origins, in the folk-song, folk-ballad, folk- dance, folk-stories. It is the result of self-expression on the solid foundations of social life. Every great writer is the product of his age and in his turn moulds his age.

In this matter ESL students suffer from a peculiar disadvantage. The study of a foreign literature is difficult enough: the ignorance of social conditions add to the difficulty. Consequently students are led to cram things mechanically, without grasping why a writer like Shelly dreams of social reconstruction, or a writer like Shaw shatters Victorian ideals and established institutions. The study of social history will give them a clearer perspective of English life, which will enable them to study their authors with greater understanding and perception.

 An ESL student is bound to fall back upon the social historians of England in order to build up his picture. The ESL student should acknowledge  his obligation to the standard writers on the subject. All that he should claim  is that he has tried to give his study the very best he could lay hands upon, in a concise and connected manner through reading texts. His class notes are not intended to supplant any standard work on social history; it should be meant to inspire him to read standard works.

Spanish Armada
There is another key basics of study in references. The references at the end of any social history books on English studies obviously give the author’s indebtedness to various English and French writers whose matter has either gone into the book or in cross studies. There might be others whose words have become a part of the students' mental make-up during his course of study and teaching of English literature. He acknowledges his gratitude to those authors also whose names could not be mentioned.

In the preparation of the study of social history we can lean heavily on Carter and Myers’ History of Britain, G. M. Freeland’s English Social History, S. E. Swain’s History of Western Civilization, W. B. Reader’s Life in Victorian England, David Daiches’ Literature and Society, and above all, Will Durant’s monumental work The Story of Civilization. Old social historians like Greene, Traill and Jusserand have contributed in the form of notes which ESL students can take from his professors’ lectures when he is a student at University. The study of social history will inspire the students to go to the Library and read the works of eminent social historians to have a better grasp of this fascinating subject. 

Now let’s frame a class schedules for the study of social history:

Time
Topic
Sub Topic
1340-1400
The Growth of the Parliament; Feudalism and the Manor; The Black Death and the Break-up of the Feudal Manor; The Peasants’ Revolt; Country Houses, Food, Dress, etc.; The World of Chivalry; Chaucer’s London; The Rise of Capitalism; The Church and Reform in the Church
1399-1485
Landlord and Tenant; The Piston Letters; Manor House and Nunneries; Education; William Caxton; London and the Merchants
1485-1563
Renaissance and Reformation
The Crusades; The Fall of Constantinople; Travel and Discoveries; The Renaissance—in Art and Music—in Literature—in Science; Achievements; The Reformation — in Germany — in England; Counter Reformation; Effects of the Reformation.
1564-1603
Traders and Seamen; The Puritans; The Queen and Her Court; Agriculture and industry; London; Houses and Homes; Dress and Fashions; Country Life; Social Relationships— Law and Law Courts; Education; Superstitions; Travelers’ Tales; Books and Authors; The Theatre; Elizabethan Drama.
1603-60
PURITAN
The Beginning of Colonial Expansion; The Upper Class: The Middle and Lower Classes in Villages; The Towns; Religious Conflicts; The Puritans—and the. Theatre, and Humanism, and Literature.
1660-1702
The Glorious Revolution; Commerce and Industry; London; Morals; Manners; Philosophy and Science; Literature.
1702-83
18th CENTURY
The Seven Years War and William Pitt; The Loss of America; The Change to Industrial England; The Industrial Revolution; Roads and Canals; The New Towns; Capital and Labour; The Methodist Revival; The Arts and the World of Fashion; -The New Middle Class and Literature; The Augustan Age
1783.1833
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
The Revolution; The Great French War; The Machine Age; Effect of the Revolution on England; Changing Patterns of Life; Women; William Cobbett; The First Reform Act; The Age of Romanticism
1837-1901
An Era of Reform; Free Trade; Socialism and Chartism; The Second and the Third Reform Acts; The Education Act, 1870;The Triumphs of Science and Industry; The Gentry; Farmers and the Farm Labourers; The Growth of Towns; Town Life—the Poor; The Comfortable Working Class; The Formation of the Middle Class; The Evangelical Christianity; The Victorian Social Order; The Theory of Evolution
1901-14
EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY ENGLAND
The Education Act, 1902; The Labor Problem, The Liberal Reformers (1906- I4); Home Rule Bill; The Pre-War Crises
1945-
Post world war
Rise of Socialism; The First Great War and Its Effects; Problem of Depression and Unemployment (1929-1935); The Development of Mass Media, Broadcasting, Newspapers, the Cinema and Television; The Social and Intellectual Life up to 1945; England after 1945.


What is the Necessity of Introducing Stories in the Homeschooling?


Storytelling is something relating of a story, either verbally or in written form. It is very necessary to introduce stories in the homeschooling as stories are interesting, captivating and absorbing for the primary students. We all know that the children like to listen to stories and they wait with rapt attention to know the end of the happening. So a teacher can arrest their attention and concentration all through the lesson/story and make them listen to the English words and sentences for 30 minutes in the class or home situation. It enhances the listening skill of the students.

Stories are not only enjoying, they are motivating also. If a child enjoys hearing one story it is very likely that he or she will want to hear another one. Stories help to develop a positive attitude towards the foreign or second language being learned. Again if a child enjoys hearing a story in the English class, the child will in turn find interest in attending English class.

Stories develop the power of imagination in children become personally involved with stories as they try to identify with the characters and try to interpret the narrative and the illustrations. Stories allow children to become more creative children often want to talk about or draw characters from the stories they like.

Stories can provide link with the world outside the homeschooling when a child listens to one of Aesop’s fables for example, the child is listening to language and at the same time, learning about the world.

Listening to stories in the homeschooling is a shared social experience which can help a child build up confidence and encourage social and moral bonding.

Storytelling can be formed in various stages:

Storytelling in various cultures: Indian Literature; African Literature: Oral Traditions; Bible: The Development of the Old Testament; Chinese Literature: Prose; Icelandic Literature

The evolution of storytelling: Allegory; Ballad; Bard; Children's Literature: The Middle Ages; Epic; Fable; Fairy and Fairy Tale; Folklore; Folktales; Novel; Parable; Poetry; Romance

Stories about storytelling:   Giovanni Boccaccio; Geoffrey Chaucer; N. Scott Momaday; Yataka

Nonverbal storytelling: Ballet; Dance; History of Photography; Hula; Indonesian Dance; Kathak; Kathakali

Places to hear or see stories:  Library; Opera; Theater

Famous American storytellers: Will Rogers; Garrison Keillor

 
Enduring stories: Johnny Appleseed; Arabian Nights; Arthurian Legend; Paul Bunyan

Ref:   Encarta  , Wikipedia

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