Sir Thomas Browne’s "Religio Medici" (Religion of a Doctor/Physician): Skepticism and Scientific Reasoning are Mixed with Faith and Revelation


“And, considering the thousand doors that lead to death, do thank my God that we can die but once.”
Thomas Browne (1605 - 1682)
English physician and writer.
Religio Medici

Sir Thomas Browne’s first important work, Religio Medici (Religion of a Doctor/Physician), probably written in 1635 at the age of thirty, is a rambling discourse in which skepticism and scientific reasoning are mixed with faith and revelation. The book was published in 1642 and translated into Latin, Dutch, French and German. Soon after its appearance in the continent, the book became popular. In France, particularly, Browne’s Religio Medici was highly esteemed and the author revered. Read More Age of Dryden


Browne was a physician by profession and a divine or preacher by inclination. He was a mystic. Outwardly, his life passed happily and calmly. He did not reflect the troubles of the civil war. He was a Royalist and an Anglican, but he did not compromise himself and his peace was not disturbed. The exercise of his wit won him much renown. He devoted his leisure to studying the antiquities of Norwich. Read More
Age of Dryden He applied Bacon’s method to the examination of the natural phenomena of the place. His science is, like Bacon’s, oddly mixed with prejudice. Browne refuses to accept the system of Copernicus and maintains that the earth is the centre of the universe. He believes in astrology, alchemy, witchcraft and magic. His evidence as a doctor caused two poor women to be put to death as witches.

Doctor and the Patient
 Browne’s mind held a curious medley. In spite of his deep knowledge of natural science, he kept a taste for miracles. This learned man is especially impressed by the narrow limits of science. He reveals his complex soul in the most celebrated and most curious of his books, Religio Medici. Neither prettiness nor wit is the dominant quality of this work. In spite of being Anglican he deals so gently with Catholicism that he has been suspected of being a Catholic. He tells us that he ‘could never hear the Ave-Mary bell without an elevation.’ He is full of sympathy for all Christian sects and even of pity for infidels. Read More Age of Dryden He prides himself on being a cosmopolitan without national prejudice. Yet he should not be mistaken for a scholar or deist of the eighteenth century because he ignores the cult of reason. In his opinion “it is better to sit down in a modest ignorance and rest content with the natural blessing of our own reasons, than buy the uncertain knowledge of this life with sweat and vexation, which death gives every fool gratis.”

Browne does not envy the early Christians the Miracles which they witnessed and which compelled them to believe. Instead he considers that their experience would make his faith too little meritorious. Read More Age of Dryden Moreover, he sees miracles everywhere, even in existence at its simplest. In his words, “Now for my life, it is a miracle of thirty years, which o relate were not a history but a piece of poetry, and would sound to common cars like a fable.”

 Browne’s habitual themes are those of the preacher-the vanity of glory, the nearness of death. He renews them with erudite reminiscences which rekindled the ashes of the most remote historical past, and with constant reference to the Universe and to cosmographical facts. As a result, there is strangeness and also loftiness in his writings.

The second part of Religio Medici is a pure autobiography. His character stands self-revealed, but he does not stand before as a naked soul shivering in the cold before an unsympathetic public, but as a man of culture and piety draped in the silver garment of hope that his religious connections have girt around him. Religio Medici is not an autobiography in the sense that Gibbons’, Herbert Spencer’s, and John Stuart Mill’s autobiographies are. Browne tells us little about his doings and a lot about his musing. Most autobiographers tell us a lot about their doing and little about their musings. Read More Age of Dryden Browne’s Religio Medici explains why Browne believes in Religion. He transmits to posterity a defence of those consolations which a religious philosophy alone can give. He states the well-worn common places of theological controversy, such as the argument from creation i.e. The Harmony of the Universe, and the argument from Design or Purpose i.e., the teleological argument by giving reference to his own thoughts and feelings. In the Second Part, when he discourses on the Christian virtue of Charity, his best argument is often a reference to his own life. There is a distinction between theology and science. In theology all depends upon authority and tradition, and has been settled long ago, and handed down to us. In Science authority does not come of itself, but all ground covered has to be constantly verified by experiment. The one is stationary, the other on the march. Neither Pascal nor Browne allowed Science to interfere in the domain of faith or with the dogmatism of moral ideal. Gosse adds that both Pascal and Browne looked upon the generations of humanity as a single man, whose conduct was fixed by a set of stationary injunctions, above and beyond all criticism.

Sir Kenelm Digby (1603-1665), English author, natural scientist, diplomat, and naval commander writes a commentary on Religio Medici, titled Observations upon Religio Medici (1643). Though the book was so much praised, Browne had to face some fierce criticism. Alexander Ross, a Scottish pamphleteer of the day, familiar, to the readers of Samuel Butler’s Hudibras, at the instigation of Edward Benlowes, a Catholic who had turned into a rabid Protestant and other friends came out with a pamphlet, “Medicus Medicatus or the Physician’s Religion cured by a lenitive or gentle potion.” The book assailed the liberality of Browne’s outlook upon ‘Christianity and it was praised by the Puritans of the day as a “Learned, sound and solid” contribution to philosophy. Read More Age of Dryden The book attacked both Sir Thomas Browne and Sir Kenelm Digby. Ross criticized Browne’s sentimentality, his rhetoric and looseness of logic, —which charge can easily be sustained. He quoted long passages from Religio Medici and tried to refute them. Ross’s indignation as a stern Puritan seems to boil in his- veins, when he sees or smell a feeling of tenderness in Browne towards the Roman Catholics and his tolerance generally. But with all this, Browne’s is renown as a thinker and apologist for Christianity spread rapidly through England, and long before his death, Browne had the consolation to see his book translated not only into Latin but also into several of the languages of modern Europe.

A TO Z Literary Principles from History of English Literature: Note 102



A Set of 26 Objective Questions & Answers
UGC NET ENGLISH QUESTION BANK

1.Tottel’s Miscellany is a collection of songs and sonnets of the Elizabethan period. It was published in 1557.Volumes of poems other than Tottel‘s Miscellany:  Paradyse Dyntry Devises (1576), The Handful of Pleasant Delites( 1584), The Phoenix Nest (1593).

2.First regular satire in English poetry that appeared in the   Elizabethan period: The Steele Glas (1576) written by   George Gascoigne, in blank verse.

3. “ Astrophel and  Stella “ mean: “ Astrophel ‘” means lover of the star whereas “ Stella “ means star. In real life they were Philip Sidney and Penelope Devereux. The sonnet sequence contains 108 sonnets.

4. Sir Philip Sidney wrote The Apologie for Poetry. It was published in 1595.

Comparative Reading of Hemingway's “A Clean Well-Lighted Place” and William Faulkner’s “The Bear”



Learning Points 


1. Students are encouraged to reflect on the essential literary components of both "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place" by Ernest Hemingway and "The Bear" by William Faulkner through this comparison.

2. The essay also engages students by connecting the themes of the narrative to broader ones discovered in comparative studies.

3. In this essay, students are challenged to consider the tension between egotism and empathy.


OVERVIEW OF BOTH THE STORIES


There are two distinct types of stories in both William Faulkner's "The Bear" and Hemingway's "A Clean Well-Lighted Place." The first narrative, which spans more than 100 pages and takes place over the course of more than ten years, is about a teenager named Ike's "growing up." The second story, about the terrible fate of an elderly man, is finished in a few hours and only requires a few pages. The first one exhibits essentially a wide range of characters and is written in a free-flowing rhetorical narrative. The latter employs a thinly populated cast of characters and sparse amounts of dialogue. There isn't much action in the second story, but there is plenty of it in the first. The iconic short story "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place" by Ernest Hemingway encompasses Modernism, Minimalism, and Nihilism. These three philosophical ideas are critical to gain a better understanding and appreciation for the story. Added to other great expenses, the precarious, constantly shifting interaction between human civilization and nature is explored in William Faulkner's "The Bear."

Ernest Hemingway's "A Clean Well-Lighted Place" and William Faulkner's "The Bear" are two classic pieces of American literature that share some similarities and differences in terms of style, theme, and structure.


Points of Similarities


Ernest Hemingway's "A Clean Well-Lighted Place" and William Faulkner's "The Bear"  are written in a minimalist style, with simple and direct language. They both focus on the essentials, bare minimum and leave much unsaid, allowing the reader to imagine and interpret what lies beneath the surface. They are like an unison exploration of the relationship between man and nature, and the impact it has on the human experience. In "A Clean Well-Lighted Place," the cafe serves as a place of refuge from the darkness and chaos of the outside world, while in "The Bear," the wilderness is a place of testing and growth for the protagonist, Ike McCaslin. Central theme  encompasses loneliness and isolation. In "A Clean Well-Lighted Place," the two waiters are lonely individuals seeking comfort in their work, while in "The Bear," Ike is isolated from the rest of society and must come to terms with his own solitude.


Points of Differences


Ernest Hemingway's "A Clean Well-Lighted Place" and William Faulkner's "The Bear" have different narrative structures. "A Clean Well-Lighted Place" is told from a third-person point of view, while "The Bear" switches between first- and third-person perspectives. The physical setting of the two stories is different. "A Clean Well-Lighted Place" takes place in a cafe in Spain, while "The Bear" takes place in the wilderness of the American South. But it is to be remembered that the real setting is the human heart. More precisely "A Clean Well-Lighted Place" focuses on the inner lives of its characters, while "The Bear '' focuses on their actions and the events that take place in the wilderness as well as in consciences , "A Clean Well-Lighted Place" is melancholic and contemplative, while "The Bear" is adventurous and thrilling.


Structural perspective of the stories


"A Clean, Well-Lighted Place" and "The Bear" both have unique structures that contribute to their themes and impact on the readers.


"A Clean, Well-Lighted Place" has a simple and straightforward structure that reflects the minimalist style of the story. Even though written in barely four pages, It is divided into three parts: the first part introduces the two waiters and their conversation about the old man who frequents the cafe; the second part focuses on the thoughts and feelings of one of the waiters as he reflects on his own loneliness; and the third part returns to the conversation between the two waiters as they prepare to close the cafe. This structure creates a cyclical effect, emphasizing the repetitiveness of the waiters' lives and the sense of timelessness that pervades the story.


"The Bear" has a more complex structure that reflects the narrative's exploration of different perspectives and experiences. The story is divided into multiple sections, each of which is told from a different point of view and focuses on different events and characters. The sections are interspersed with passages that provide background information on the history and mythology of the land, as well as on the lives and experiences of the characters. This structure allows the story to delve into the multiple perspectives and experiences that shape the relationship between man and nature in the wilderness, and to explore the impact of this relationship on the individual and collective experiences of the characters.


The minimalist structure of "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place" reflects the story's focus on the essential, while the complex structure of "The Bear" reflects the story's exploration of different perspectives and experiences. Both structures serve to draw the reader into the story and to create a sense of immersion in the world of the story.


Rhetorical perspective of the stories 


"A Clean, Well-Lighted Place" and "The Bear" both employ a variety of stylistic devices to convey their themes and impact the reader. In "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place," Hemingway employs his trademark minimalist style, using simple and direct language. This style creates a sense of understated intimacy between the reader and the characters, and highlights the poignant moments of the story through its lack of ornamentation. The repetition of key phrases and images, such as the mention of the "clean, well-lighted place" and the "nothingness" of the old man's existence, reinforces the central themes of the story and creates a sense of rhythm and unity. In "The Bear," Faulkner employs a more dense and lyrical style, using intricate imagery and extended metaphors to convey the relationship between man and nature. Here is  rich and evocative language, creating a vivid picture of the wilderness and the experiences of the characters. The use of multiple perspectives and shifting points of view also contributes to the rhetorical impact of the story, allowing the reader to experience the world of the story from multiple angles and to gain a deeper understanding of the themes.


Comparative Character Analysis


In "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place," there are three main characters: the old man, the young waiter, and the old waiter. The three characters in "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place" represent different attitudes towards loneliness and isolation, and the story serves as a commentary on the importance of compassion and understanding for those who are struggling with these feelings. The old man is a deaf and elderly patron of the cafe. He is a lonely and isolated figure, coming to the cafe every night to find some sense of peace and solitude. He is a victim of his own deafness, which separates him from the rest of the world and makes it difficult for him to connect with others. Despite this, he is a dignified and proud man, and he takes great pleasure in the simple pleasures of life, like sitting in the cafe and enjoying a drink.


The young waiter is an impatient and callous character who is eager to close up the cafe and go home. He is rude to the old man and dismissive of his need to be in the cafe, seeing him as a burden and an inconvenience. He is a contrast to the old waiter, who is more compassionate and understanding of the old man's needs.


The old waiter is a compassionate and empathetic character who understands the old man's need for a clean, well-lighted place. He recognizes that the cafe is a place of comfort and security for the old man, and he takes great pleasure in providing him with good service and a welcoming atmosphere. Unlike the young waiter, the old waiter is patient and understanding, and he takes the time to listen to the old man and offer him a sense of connection and companionship.


"The Bear" by William Faulkner  tells the story of a hunting trip in the Mississippi Delta and the moral and spiritual awakening of a young boy named Ike McCaslin. Here is a galaxy of  characters. Ike is the protagonist of the story and is a young boy who is on a hunting trip with his grandfather and a group of men. He is struggling to come to terms with the death of his cousin and feels a sense of guilt and responsibility. Ike is introspective and questioning, and his moral dilemma about killing Old Ben reflects his struggle to reconcile his own humanity with the harsh realities of the natural world. Major de Spain is Ike's grandfather and the owner of the hunting land where the hunt for Old Ben takes place. He is a traditional, patriarchal figure who is deeply rooted in the land and its history. Sam Fathers is a Native American guide who helps the hunters track Old Ben. He is depicted as being more in touch with the natural world and his own spirituality than the white characters. Boon Hogganbeck is a white man who is also on a hunting trip. He is depicted as being boorish and insensitive, lacking the spiritual awareness and respect for nature that Sam Fathers possesses. Notably, Old Ben is the legendary bear that is the focus of the hunting trip. He represents the natural world and serves as a metaphor for the search for meaning and purpose in life. Old Ben's fate serves as a moral and spiritual turning point for Ike as he grapples with the complexities of human nature and the natural world.


Understanding Symbols & Motifs


Most interestingly, the bare minimum word structure in "A Clean Well-Lighted Place" have four telling symbols: The Café , The Old Man's Deafness, Old Waiter's Prayer, Insomnia. The café represents the opposite of nothingness: its cleanliness and good lighting suggest order and clarity, whereas nothingness is chaotic, confusing, and dark. It is also the symbol of an empty, meaningless life, emotional darkness, surrounding the old man and the older waiter. They both are victims of fear, inner loneliness, hopelessness, and "nada." They consider a "clean well-lighted cafe" a refuge from the deserted night. The old man represents the depths of despair and depression a person could experience in a lifetime. His deafness makes him physically isolated from the rest of the world, as he is deprived of the pleasure of human conversation. The older waiter, in his mocking prayers filled with the word nada, shows that religion is not a viable method of dealing with despair, and his solution is the same as the old man's: he waits out the nighttime in cafés. He is particular about the type of café he likes: the café must be well lit and clean. We all end up in the same place of spiritual "insomnia," unable to make sense of a senseless world.


In William Faulkner's "The Bear" , Old Ben, the big bear, who was even given a name, functions as a, preternatural animal that symbolizes for them (the hunters) their relation to nature and thus to life. The naturalistic elements are given by the scheme of man versus natural forces and their determination through their environment.


All of this contrasts sharply with Boon's inherent possessiveness. Despite his bravery and loyalty to McCaslin and Major de Spain, Boon remains "violent, insensitive, and untrustworthy." Notably, his eyes, according to Faulkner, are "without intensity or meanness or generosity or viciousness or gentleness or whatever else." Lion combines "unbroken courage" and "indomitable spirit" with "bloodless and impersonal malignancy" and a "will to pursue and kill." Many other actors in "The Bear" have dominant trends that can be observed. They convincingly demonstrate a much wider range of characters in this story.


Critical Conclusion 


"A Clean, Well-Lighted Place" by Ernest Hemingway and "The Bear" by William Faulkner are both highly regarded short stories that have received critical attention for their themes, style, and impact on the reader.


"A Clean, Well-Lighted Place" is often considered a masterpiece of minimalist short story, and is celebrated for its simple yet powerful exploration of loneliness, aging, and death. Critics have praised the story's direct and understated style, which creates a sense of intimacy between the reader and the characters and highlights the poignant moments of the story. "The Bear" is considered a seminal work of American literature and is praised for its vivid portrayal of the relationship between man and nature in the wilderness. The story is celebrated for its complex structure, which allows for multiple perspectives and experiences to be explored and its dense and lyrical style, which creates a vivid picture of the wilderness and the experiences of the characters. Critics have also noted the impact of the story's themes on the reader, including the significance of the relationship between man and nature, the impact of human actions on the natural world, and the importance of individual and collective experiences in shaping one's relationship with the world.


Both "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place" and "The Bear" continue to be widely studied and admired for their themes, style, and lasting impression on readers’ mind.They are masterpieces of American literature that offer insightful perspectives on the human experience. While they share some similarities, each story stands on its own and offers a unique perspective on the themes of loneliness, isolation, and man's relationship with nature.


Ardhendu De


(Note: American author Ernest Hemingway first published "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place" in Scribner's Magazine in 1933. It was also included in his collection Winner Take Nothing (1933).


The history of "The Bear"'s publications is convoluted. Its original version, which was first published in The Saturday Evening Post on May 9, 1942, is very different from the version in Go Down, Moses. In 1955, Big Woods, a collection of hunting tales by Faulkner, included a third version.

( "Was", "The Fire and the Hearth", "Pantaloon in Black", "The Old People", "The Bear", "Delta Autumn", "Go Down, Moses")


Ref:

1. R. Noble. (n.d.). Hemingway: A Revaluation. (1998).

2. Harnngton, & Abadie . (n.d.). Faulkner and the Short-Story.(1992).

3. IGNOU Study Guide


Farther Studies

Who is the protagonist in The Bear by William Faulkner?

Who kills old Ben in The Bear?

What does The Bear symbolize in The Bear by William Faulkner?

What is the theme of The Bear by William Faulkner?

What is William Faulkner The Bear about?

What is the plot in the story The Bear?

Is The Bear a short story?

How many sections are there in the story The Bear?

Who are the 3 characters in A Clean, Well-Lighted Place?

What type of character is the old man in A Clean, Well-Lighted Place?

Who is a symbolic character in A Clean, Well-Lighted Place?

Who is the antagonist in A Clean, Well-Lighted Place?



The Belief in Evil Spirits or Witchcraft in the 16th and 17th Centuries: Outcome in English Literature


 The belief in evil spirits, and in the power of witches  or Witchcraft to do harm by their aid, was wide-spread both among Catholics and Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries. Allusions to it are frequent in literature. Statutes were constantly passed against sorcery, and there are many accounts of the trials of persons suspected of the practice. The most interesting contemporary books on the subject are Harsnet's Declaration of Egregious Popish Impostures (1603); and Reginald Scot's Discoverie of Witchcraft. Harsnet's tract is an enquiry into certain cases of demoniacal possession alleged to have been cured by Parsons, the Jesuit: Scot's is a noteworthy attack upon the whole superstition, and is crammed with curious magical lore. It is said to have been publicly burnt, and was reprinted in 1651.

A TO Z Literary Principles from History of English Literature: Note 101


A Set of 26 Objective Questions & Answers

UGC NET ENGLISH QUESTION BANK

1.     Duchess of Malfi; Hamlet; Gorboduc are Revenge Tragedy.
2.     Alice Munro’s Meneseteung is a rich tale spanning several decades.
3.     George Saunders’s Pastoralia focuses on a man who is stuck in a life he hates in a dystopian future.

The Revenge Theme Earlier Writers of Tragedy in the English Language


“Revenge is a kind of wild justice; which the more man's nature runs to, the more ought law to weed it out.”
Francis Bacon (1561 - 1626)
English philosopher, statesman, and lawyer.
Essays, "Of Revenge"

The earlier writers of tragedy in the English language Thomas Sackville and Thomas Norton, fastened on a story of revenge for the Gorboduc, first produced in 1561. Since then, for another six years revenge continued to be one of the popular themes of dramatic representation. Gorboduc has a simple plot: Gorboduc, King of Britain, divides his realm between his sons, Ferrex and Porrex and retires from rule. Soon afterwards vaulting ambition enslaves both the brothers; the younger Porrex acts quickly, invades Ferrex’s territory and slays his brother with his own hand. Queen Videna revenges the murder of her first son by killing Porrex. The outraged public rise in revolt and murder both the King and the Queen.

Gorboduc was significant in its day, not merely for its political overtones but also, perhaps chiefly, for breaking fresh ground in dramaturgy. The play, however, did not serve as a model for later writers of revenge plays. The authors of Gorboduc would have been familiar with the translations of Seneca’s plays but they did not induct into English drama all the conventions of Senecan tragedy. In fact, Revenge Tragedy, form of Elizabethan and Jacobean drama in which revenge provides the mainspring of the action, it is usually characterized by bloody deeds, intrigue, and high melodrama. Revenge tragedy was pioneered by English dramatist Thomas Kyd with The Spanish Tragedy (1589?); other playwrights who used the form are William Shakespeare in Titus Andronicus (1594?) and Cyril Tourneur in The Revenger's Tragedy (1607). Its influence is also apparent in tragedies such as Shakespeare's Hamlet (1601?) and Macbeth (1606?). In the later plays of John Webster’s The White Devil and The Duchess of Malfi both the action and thoughts are more matured and penchant.

 Naturally, it was left to Thomas Kyd to provide a model of Senecan revenge tragedy to the English audience through The Spanish Tragedy, (1594). Since his day the features of revenge came to be recognized as the following:

(a) A shocking murder has been committed and it cries out for revenge;
(b) Person or persons take up revenge as a sacred duty;
(c) The ghost of the murdered person stalks about, asking for revenge or providing the stimulus for revenge; alternatively there are omens and presentiments;
(d) There is a Machiavellian villain, who, acting on his own behalf or for others, causes widespread bloodshed; new-tangled tortures and horrors are introduced;
(f) The objects of revenge are often better than the so-called avengers;
(g) Some characters grow mad or feign madness;
(h) There is a play within a play which often mirrors the core of the main action; and
(i) The imagery and language emplaced often suit the violence of the action.

The Elizabethan and Jacobean tragic writers employed as many of these features as their plots allowed and freely made variations in them. The Spanish Tragedy exhibits only a few of these features, the others being the innovations of later writers. In this play the ghost of Don Andrea appears in the Induction along with Revenge (from hell) and these two form the Chorus for the play. Don Andrea, the Spanish courtier, has been killed in battle by Don Balthazar, son of the Portuguese Viceroy and the ghost of Andrea seeks revenge Balthazar and Lorenzo are the villains who murder Horatio unjustly, just to get him out of fair Belimperia’s way.

Horatio’s death drives his mother mad and she commits suicide. Horatio’s father Hieronimo swears revenge and executes, but by means of a play within a play. Finally Hieronimo bites out his tongue to avoid making a confession and later stabs himself.

Schemes, intrigues, plots, counterplots, unwarranted murder, revenge involving many deaths, a ghost and a play within the play—these are the main features of The Spanish Tragedy as a revenge play. These involved exciting and unusual scenes of violence and thrilled the uneducated part of the audience. But behind the spectacle lay the mainsprings of action, namely, questions of honour and prestige and the feeling of satisfaction that an important person derives in destroying wrong-doers even at the risk of his own life—these appealed to the educated and the nobility.

So the rich potential of revenge tragedy taught the imagination of writers like John Marston, Shakespeare and Tourneur and they attempted plays of this type with their variations of dramatic technique. In making the avenger a virtuous, sensitive, and scholarly person, Shakespeare raised his revenge tragedy, Hamlet, to high intellectual and philosophical level. Cyril Tourneur exploited the morbid and melodramatic aspects of revenge tragedy and heaped horrors on horror’s head in The Revenger’s Tragedy (1607) and The Atheist’s Tragedy (1611).

John Webster, starting after the revenge tragedians, great and small, showed his originality basically in reversing the moral positions of the avengers and the victim. In The White Devil and The Duchess of Malfi the victims of the so-called revenge are heroic women and the ‘avengers’ are bloodthirsty villains. While tortures are there aplenty for the entertainment of the groundlings, the two plays raise the questions of degree and dignity of high places and in fact make in hem the springs of action: this has been done to satisfy the nobility and the educated among the audience.

Key POints:

Senecan Influence:
  1. Seneca's Roman tragedies influenced English playwrights like Kyd and Marlowe.
  2. Revenge was a central theme, often driving the plots of their tragedies.
Kyd's "The Spanish Tragedy":
  1. One of the earliest revenge tragedies, it established the genre's conventions.
  2. Hieronimo's pursuit of vengeance for his son's murder exemplifies the theme.
Marlowe's "The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus":
  1. While not a conventional revenge tragedy, Faustus seeks power to avenge his existential dissatisfaction.
  2. Themes of ambition and consequence intertwine with the pursuit of revenge.
Impact and Evolution:
  1. The revenge theme laid groundwork for later revenge tragedies by Shakespeare and others.
  2. It highlighted themes of justice, moral conflict, and the consequences of unchecked vengeance.
Early English playwrights integrated the revenge theme into their tragedies, shaping the trajectory of the genre and exploring complex facets of human emotions and motivations.

Death of Cordelia in the Light of Poetic Justice in William Shakespeare’s "King Lear"


 Poetic justice is a sort of ideal justice, which the poets and critics are expected to impart in apportioning rewards and Punishments to the characters they create. It is an ideal world of justice where crime and punishment exist, bound more of less by a nexus of transcendental mathematics. As an idea, however, it is too bookish and fails to explain the wicked world in which men and women live and die. It thinks more of the world as it should be than the world as it is. The world of daily existence is a world where the wicked prosper and evil thrive while the good is wasted and ignored. Such a world provides stuff for tragedies of Shakespeare who accepts the world as it is and King Lear is no exception to it.

In fact, King Lear is the finest specimen of deep tragedy in English drama, although it is not the most popular. Part of its lesser popularity is due to prevalent conception of the ideal poetic justice in which the poet is alleged to fail in this play and particularly in the death of Cordelia. It is so cruel that Dr. Johnson could not• simply tolerate the scene. It is a play in which the wicked prosper, says Johnson—the death of loving Cordelia was too much for him. It is also the reason why Nahum Tate’s rewritten version of the play (1681) was preferred for well over a hundred and fifty years by the play going public. Both the public and the critics seemed shocked at the revelation of pessimism so stark and unrelieved.

The concept of ideal poetic justice is unknown to Shakespearean tragedy, where the world is accepted as it is. Shakespeare is too much of a realist to ignore the going world where good and evil, love and hate reside side by side. As a true romantic again he knows that divine justice is not a matter of mathematical calculus. His tragic heroes suffer more than apparently seem their due and his Lear is truly a “man more sinned against than sinning.” His Kent is banished for righteousness and his .loving Cordelia is disowned by a despotic foolish father. His bastard of an Edmund moves from triumph to triumph in the mundane world while the good, legitimate and loving son of an Edgar suffers terribly throughout the play.

It is, however, the death of Cordelia that militates most against the idea of poetic justice. Why does Cordelia die? asks Bradley in his famous Shakespearean Tragedy and goes on---”I suppose no reader failed to ask that question, and to ask it with something more than pain and even perhaps in tones of protest.” and then Bradley gives his reason of mystic justification for this shocking death by saying that the more monstrous, senseless and unmerited her death, the more deeply we feel her absolute unconcern for it for she is what she is despite all the outward happenings. The killing of Cordelia is not explained but merely mystified. It is known that Shakespeare departs from his source with its happy ending where Cordelia is shown living even after the death of Lear and he certainly does not make a departure for nothing. He does it in fact to impress his essential tragic view of life, here as elsewhere.

As has been said already, Shakespeare is no believer in a bookish poetic justice. His book is the open book of nature where good and evil co-exist. But certainly in his world of drama and particularly in this play, it is not the wicked that prosper or goodness fails as extremely unavailing. There is no poetic justice here but there is no moral anarchy too in King Lear. There is justice—the justice of the Shakespearean Universe, in this world which is essentially moral, evil may triumph temporarily only to be destroyed in the end. The good people suffer only to purify themselves and others. Virtue may not be rewarded but evil is finally punished always. Nemesis ultimately overtakes Regan, Goneril, Edmund and Cornwall while two good men, Albany and Edgar left at the end in full control of the situation, rendering it was a partial poetic justice.

This discussion, however, cannot be complete without a reference to the central idea of Waste of good in a Shakespearean tragedy. Shakespeare’s moral order conveys a continual battle between Good and Evil where destruction of evil involves also a partial destruction of the dearest good. That being the core of Shakespearean tragedy, the concept of so-called poetic justice is simply inapplicable to the Shakespearean wand. In fact, in three great tragedies of Shakespeare, (Hamlet, Othello and King Lear) the heroines are found to die for no fault of their own. Ophelia, Desdemona and Cordelia represent sweet bright presence and angelic innocence and none certainly merits her tragic death, but still it so happens in the world, which is neither bad nor good. Shakespeare only tried to present in his tragic vision the spectacle of this world, “travailing for perfection, but bringing to birth together with glorious Good, an Evil, which it is able to overcome only by self-torture and self-waste.” (Bradley). Conventional poetic justice is never his seeking but if it comes his way, Shakespeare is the last man to throw it away.

Ardhendu De

Buy My Books

Buy My Books
Objective Questions from English Literature

Recent Posts