TIMELINE OF ENGLISH LITERATURE - Age of Milton ( 1635- 1670)

John Milton

The Age of Milton is a significant period in English literature, spanning roughly from 1635 to 1670. This era is dominated by the towering figure of John Milton and is often associated with the transition from the Renaissance to the Restoration. It was a time marked by political upheaval, religious conflict, and a shift in literary styles, all of which deeply influenced the literature of the period.

Key Historical and Cultural Context

1. English Civil War (1642–1651): This period was marked by the conflict between the Royalists (supporters of King Charles I) and the Parliamentarians (supporters of a constitutional monarchy). The eventual defeat of the Royalists led to the execution of Charles I in 1649 and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell.

2. Interregnum and the Commonwealth (1649–1660): After the Civil War, England became a republic under the leadership of Cromwell. The monarchy was abolished, and this was a period of strict Puritan governance, which influenced cultural and literary production.

3. Restoration of the Monarchy (1660): The monarchy was restored in 1660 when Charles II returned to England. This brought about a change in the political and cultural atmosphere, moving away from the strictness of the Puritan regime to a more vibrant and secular court culture.

Major Literary Figures

1. John Milton (1608–1674)

   • Key Works:
     • Lycidas (1637)
     • Areopagitica (1644)
     • Paradise Lost (1667)
     • Paradise Regained (1671)
     • Samson Agonistes (1671)
   • Milton is considered the central figure of this era. His most famous work, Paradise Lost, is an epic poem that explores themes of free will, divine justice, and the fall of man. It reflects the religious and political conflicts of the time and stands as one of the greatest works in the English language.
   • Milton’s prose works, such as Areopagitica, championed freedom of speech and opposed censorship, reflecting his involvement in the political struggles of the Commonwealth period.
   • Milton's "Paradise Lost" published in 1667. He completes his epic poem Paradise Lost in 1674 after becoming blind. The work, which tells the story of Lucifer’s rebellion in heaven and Adam’s fall, is an extended meditation on humanity’s relationship with God, human nature, and the meaning of life. It is considered one of the masterpieces of world literature.

2. Andrew Marvell (1621–1678)

   • Key Works:
     • To His Coy Mistress (written c.1650, published posthumously in 1681)
     • The Garden (1681)
     • An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell’s Return from Ireland (1650)
   • Marvell was both a poet and politician. His poetry often blends metaphysical wit with classical allusions, while his political writings reflect his involvement in the turbulent events of the English Civil War and the Commonwealth.

3. Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)

   • Key Work:
     • Leviathan (1651)
   • Hobbes’s Leviathan is a philosophical treatise that outlines his views on the nature of human beings and the necessity of a powerful sovereign to maintain order. Though not a literary work in the traditional sense, it had a profound impact on political thought during the Age of Milton.

4. Robert Herrick (1591–1674)

• Key Works:
  • 
    Hesperides (1648)
• Herrick, a Royalist, is best known for his collection Hesperides, which contains his famous lyric poems, including To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time. His work often reflects the pastoral tradition, with themes of carpe diem, love, and nature.

5. John Bunyan (1628–1688):

   • John Bunyan (1628–1688) was an English writer and Puritan preacher, best known for his allegorical work, The Pilgrim’s Progress (1678), one of the most famous books in English literature. He lived during a time of religious upheaval and civil war in England, which deeply influenced his writings. Bunyan’s works, infused with strong Christian themes, are often seen as reflections of his deep religious convictions and experiences of persecution for his beliefs.

   1. The Pilgrim's Progress (1678, Part I; 1684, Part II)

      • The Pilgrim’s Progress is an allegory that describes the journey of a character named Christian from the “City of Destruction” to the “Celestial City,” symbolizing the Christian's journey toward salvation.
      • The work is divided into two parts, with the first focusing on Christian’s personal journey and the second on his wife, Christiana, and their children as they make the same pilgrimage.
      • It became a cornerstone of English Protestant literature, cherished for its vivid imagery, accessible language, and spiritual insight.

   2. Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners (1666)

      • This is Bunyan’s spiritual autobiography, where he reflects on his religious struggles, conversion, and eventual ministry. It offers insight into Bunyan's personal faith and experiences.

   3. The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680)

      • This work is a companion to The Pilgrim’s Progress but focuses on the negative example of a sinner named Mr. Badman, depicting a moralistic tale of a life lived without repentance.

   4. The Holy War (1682)

      • Another allegory, The Holy War portrays the battle for the city of Mansoul, which symbolizes the human soul, and explores the themes of sin, redemption, and spiritual warfare

Major Themes and Styles

1. Religious and Political Conflict: The literature of this era is deeply intertwined with the religious and political upheaval of the time. Writers like Milton and Marvell reflected on the Civil War, Cromwell’s rule, and the shifting religious landscape, often grappling with questions of divine justice, authority, and the role of the individual in society.

2. Puritanism and its Influence: With the rise of the Puritan movement, literature became more moralistic and introspective. Milton’s epic, Paradise Lost, for instance, embodies the Puritan concern with sin, redemption, and the relationship between man and God.

3. Metaphysical Poetry: The metaphysical poets, who were active during this period, including Marvell and earlier poets like John Donne, used elaborate metaphors (conceits) and intellectual wordplay to explore complex themes of love, religion, and human existence.

4. Classical Influences: Writers of this period, especially Milton and Marvell, were heavily influenced by classical literature. Milton’s Paradise Lost draws on the traditions of Greek and Roman epic poetry, while Marvell’s The Garden and other works reflect classical pastoral themes.

5. Epic Poetry and Allegory: Milton’s Paradise Lost is the crowning achievement of epic poetry in English, drawing on classical models like Homer’s Iliad and Virgil’s Aeneid. The period also saw the use of allegory, as in Milton’s Samson Agonistes, which mirrors his own political and religious struggles.

Notable Literary Works and Events

• 1637: Milton’s Lycidas is published, showcasing his mastery of the pastoral elegy.
• 1644: Milton publishes Areopagitica, advocating for freedom of speech and against censorship.
• 1648: Herrick publishes Hesperides, a collection of poems that celebrates the joy of life and nature.
• 1650: Marvell writes An Horatian Ode upon Cromwell’s Return from Ireland, reflecting the complexities of the political situation.
• 1651: Hobbes publishes Leviathan, his influential work on political theory.
• 1660: The Restoration of the monarchy under Charles II begins, marking the end of the Commonwealth and a shift in literary and cultural trends.
• 1667: Milton’s Paradise Lost is published, becoming one of the greatest epic poems in English literature.

Conclusion

The Age of Milton was a period of literary brilliance shaped by political and religious turmoil. John Milton, the central figure, produced works that have had a lasting influence on English literature. Other writers like Marvell and Herrick also contributed to the richness of this era, blending classical traditions with the immediate concerns of their time. The literature of this period is marked by its intellectual rigor, engagement with politics, and deep moral concerns.

Short Questions on The Age of Milton (1635–1670)

1. Who is considered the central literary figure of the Age of Milton?**John Milton is considered the central literary figure of the Age of Milton.

2. What is John Milton's most famous work? **John Milton’s most famous work is Paradise Lost (1667).

3. Which historical event had a major impact on the literature of the Age of Milton? **The English Civil War (1642–1651) had a major impact on the literature of the Age of Milton.

4. What political regime followed the execution of King Charles I?**The Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell followed the execution of King Charles I.

5. What major literary work by John Milton advocates for freedom of speech?**Areopagitica (1644) advocates for freedom of speech.

6. Which poet, other than Milton, was active during the Age of Milton and wrote To His Coy Mistress?**Andrew Marvell wrote To His Coy Mistress.

7. What type of poem is Paradise Lost?**Paradise Lost is an epic poem.

8. Which philosopher published Leviathan during the Age of Milton, and what is its focus?Thomas Hobbes published Leviathan (1651), focusing on the nature of human beings and the necessity of a powerful sovereign to maintain order.

9. What was the Puritan attitude toward literature during the Age of Milton?**The Puritan attitude toward literature was moralistic, focusing on religious and spiritual themes, often reflecting introspection and piety.

10. Which literary tradition influenced Milton’s Paradise Lost?**Milton’s Paradise Lost was influenced by the classical tradition of Greek and Roman epic poetry, including works like Homer’s Iliad and Virgil’s Aeneid.

11. What was the Restoration, and when did it occur?**The Restoration refers to the return of the monarchy in 1660, when Charles II was restored to the throne.
12. What is a common theme found in Milton’s Samson Agonistes?**A common theme in Samson Agonistes is struggle and redemption, reflecting Milton’s own political and religious struggles.
13. Which poet is known for the collection Hesperides, published during this period?**Robert Herrick is known for the collection Hesperides (1648).
14. What literary style is associated with poets like Andrew Marvell during the Age of Milton?**Metaphysical poetry, characterized by intellectual wordplay and elaborate metaphors, is associated with poets like Andrew Marvell.
15. What is the theme of Milton’s Paradise Lost?**The theme of Paradise Lost centers on the fall of man, exploring themes of free will, divine justice, and redemption.
16. Name the two cavalier poets.**Ans. Richard Lovelace and Sir John Suckling are cavalier poets. They were cavaliers, gentleman whofought on the king’s side. There were two parties – Cavaliers and Roundheads. Cavaliers were royalists, while Roundheads were puritans and rebels against Charles I.Lovelace – Al the from Prison.Suckling – Ballad upon a wedding.
17. Which is the great epic by Milton and name a play by Milton?**Ans. Paradise Lost (1667) is the greatest epic of Milton. Samson Agonistes is the play by Milton.
18. Name four Cavalier poets. Why are they so called?**Ans. Lovelace, Suckling, Murrick and Carew are the four Cavalier poets. In the then England, (at the period of Charles I) there were two political parties Cavaliers and Roundheads. Cavaliers are the party  of the king. These poets wrote for the king and against the Roundheads..
19. Who wrote Lycidas? What was the occasion?**Ans. John Milton wrote Lycidas. It was written in memory of a college friend of the poet, Edward king,    who was drowned when his ship was wrecked on a crossing to Iceland in 1637.
20. Who are called Cavalier poets and why?**Ans. These cavalier poets are associated with the court of Charles I. They were called so as they  supported the king’s party Cavalier and opposed to Roundheads, the supporter of parliament. They       wrote Witty and polished lyrics of love and gallantry. The group included Richard Lovelace, John   suckling, Thomas Carew and Robert Herrick.
21. Who is the author of Il Penseroso?**Ans. It is a longish poem written by Milton on the experience of gay & thoughtful man.
22. Name the play written by Milton.**Ans. Samson Agonistes (1671), a poetic play by Milton depicts the story of Samson from The Bible, book of judges. The tragedy parallels both Samson and Milton for their common suffering of blindness and heart-rending frustration.
23. .How are these two years related to each other 1649 and 1660?**Ans:    In 1649, the execution of Charles I is done and the Puritan government starts its rule. In 1660, the Restoration of Charles II happens and the puritanic government declines. With the Restoration there begins new lees of life in Literature contrary to puritanic restriction.
24. Who wrote Areopagitica and about what?**Ans. Areopagitica (1644) written by John Milton is a noble and impassioned plea for the liberty of the press. Here is the magnificent search for the dead truth and though egoistic here is the splendour of  Miltonic prose.
25. Which book of Milton justified the beheading of king Charles? Mention his two other works.**Ans. In Tenure of Kings Milton justified the beheading of king Charles I. His other notable works are Paradise Lost, Areopagitica, Samson Agonistes etc.
26. Give the meaning of Religio Medici?** Ans. Religio Medici (written 1635, pub 1642), a prose work by Sir Thomas Browne is his confession of faith. Here is a curious mixture of religious faith and scientific skepticism. The quoted title word means book of medicine.                                                                                                                                                 

Ardhendu De