Early Black Voices of American Literature: Phillis Wheatley, Frederick Douglass and Harriet Beecher Stowe

Early Black Voices

When we think of American literature, we often think of the greats such as Hemingway, Fitzgerald, and Steinbeck. However, there is a rich history of early Black voices in American literature that often goes overlooked. These writers paved the way for future generations and their contributions are invaluable.

Phillis Wheatley (1753?-1784)

Phillis Wheatley

One such writer is Phillis Wheatley, who was born in Senegal and brought to America as a slave in 1761. Despite her circumstances, Wheatley learned to read and write English, and by the age of 14, she had published her first poem. Her works, which included elegies, odes, and religious poetry, were widely recognized in her time and served as a powerful commentary on the harsh realities of slavery.

Her major works include "Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral" (1773), which was a collection of elegies, religious poems, and other works. Her other works include “To the University of Cambridge in New England” (1767) and “To the King's Most Excellent Majesty” (1768). Her poetry was well-received by some, but criticized by others for its "lack of originality" and "imitation of white poets." The acquisition is partly true as she modelled English poets of the time, especially Alexander Pope and Thomas Gray. Despite this, Wheatley's work was influential in challenging racial stereotypes and promoting the idea of African American literary expression. Here we quote from "Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral". The collection is prefaced by a letter from her master and it tells about the reality of her.

Letter Sent by the Author's Master to the Publisher

"Phillis was brought from Africa to America in the Year 1761, between Seven and Eight Years of Age. Without any Assistance from School Education, and by only what she was taught in the Family, she, in sixteen Months Time from her Arrival, attained the English Language, to which she was an utter Stranger before, to such a Degree, as to read any, the most difficult Parts of the Sacred Writings, to the great Astonishment of all who heard her.

As to her Writing, her own Curiosity led her to it; and this she learnt in so short a Time, that in the Year 1765, she wrote a Letter to the Rev. Mr. Occom, the Indian Minister, while in England.

She has a great Inclination to learn the Latin Tongue, and has made some Progress in it. This Relation is given by her Master who bought her, and with whom she now lives. "

--- John Wheatley

This a account of the  Phillis Wheatley's own remembrance:

“On Being Brought from Africa to America”

"'Twas mercy brought me from my Pagan land, 

That there's a God, that there's a Saviour too: 

Once I redemption neither sought nor knew. 

Some view our sable race with scornful eye, 

'Their colour is a diabolic die.' 

Remember, Christians, Negros, black as Cain, 

May be refin'd, and join th' angelic train.

Taught my benighted soul to understand "

Frederick Douglass (1817?-1895) 

Frederick Douglass

Another early Black writer was Frederick Douglass, who was born into slavery in Maryland in 1818. After escaping to freedom, Douglass became a leading abolitionist and advocate for civil rights. His autobiographical works, including "Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave," are considered some of the most powerful accounts of slavery ever written. Frederick Douglass was a prominent Black abolitionist and orator, known for his powerful speeches and autobiographical works. His major works include "Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass," "My Bondage and My Freedom," and "Life and Times of Frederick Douglass." His writing provided a firsthand account of the horrors of slavery and challenged the prevailing beliefs of white supremacy. Critics praised his eloquence and criticized his radical ideas on racial equality. Here his fiery speech:

"Fellow citizens, above your national, tumultuous joy, I hear the mournful wail of millions! whose chains, heavy and grievous yesterday, are, today, rendered more intolerable by the jubilee shouts that reach them. If I do forget, if I do not faithfully remember those bleeding children of sorrow this day, 'may my right hand forget her cunning, and may my tongue cleave to the roof of my mouth'! To forget them, to pass lightly over their wrongs, and to chime in with the popular theme would be treason most scandalous and shocking, and would make me a reproach before God and the world."

Frederick Douglass: 'The Mournful Wail of Millions'

July 4, 1852

Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811-1896) 

Harriet Beecher Stowe

Harriet Beecher Stowe was an American writer and abolitionist who authored "Uncle Tom’s Cabin" in 1852, a novel that strongly criticized slavery and became one of the most influential works of American literature. The book sold 500,000 copies in the United States within five years and was translated into more than 20 languages. It helped to crystallize militant antislavery sentiment in the North, and was an important factor in precipitating the American Civil War. Stowe's later fiction was extensive but uneven in quality, with her best work lying in her stories of local life in Puritan New England. She died in Hartford, Connecticut in 1896. Stowe was one of the early Black voices of American literature, using her platform to condemn slavery and promote social reform. While Stowe was not Black herself, her novel was a groundbreaking critique of the institution of slavery and helped to shape public opinion in favor of abolition. 

In the quoted scene bellow from  "Uncle Tom’s Cabin", Stowe, who was the daughter of a clergyman, infuses references to the New Testament and the crucifixion of Jesus Christ to promote the abolition of slavery. The cruel plantation owner, Simon Legree, kills Tom after two of his fellow slaves, Cassy and Emmeline, manage to escape and evade Legree's pursuit:

"Tom looked up to his master, and answered, 'Mas'r, if you was sick, or in trouble, or dying, and I could save ye, I'd give ye my heart's blood; and, if taking every drop of blood in this poor old body would save your precious soul, I'd give 'em freely, as the Lord gave his for me. O, Mas'r! don't bring this great sin on your soul! It will hurt you more than 't will me! Do the worst you can, my troubles'll be over soon; but, if ye don't repent, yours won't never end!'

Like a strange snatch of heavenly music, heard in the lull of a tempest, this burst of feeling made a moment's blank pause. Legree stood aghast, and looked at Tom; and there was such a silence, that the tick of the old clock could be heard, measuring, with silent touch, the last moments of mercy and probation to that hardened heart.

It was but a moment. There was one hesitating pause,—one irresolute, relenting thrill,—and the spirit of evil came back, with seven-fold vehemence; and Legree, foaming with rage, smote his victim to the ground."

Conclusion

Reading these works today can be both enlightening and challenging. On the one hand, they offer a glimpse into a world that many of us cannot fully comprehend, where the color of one's skin determined their worth as a human being. On the other hand, they can be difficult to read as they often contain graphic depictions of violence and injustice. Despite facing insurmountable odds, they refused to be silenced and used their words to speak truth to power. Their works serve as a reminder that the fight for equality is ongoing and that we must continue to use our voices to create change.

In conclusion, it is fair to say that the early Black voices of American literature played a critical role in shaping the literary landscape of this country. Their contributions are a testament to the power of the written word and serve as a powerful reminder of the importance of diversity and inclusion in all areas of life.

The texts of these early writers as well as overall situations highlights some key points:

👀Slavery contradicted the belief in equality and inalienable rights affirmed in the Declaration of Independence
👀Early leaders believed African slaves were intellectually inferior to whites
👀Phillis Wheatley, a Boston slave, challenged these assumptions through her education and poetry
👀Wheatley's highly structured and elegant poetry expressed her frustration with enslavement and desire for equality
👀Wheatley's poetry, along with that of other slaves such as Lucy Terry and Jupiter Hammon, began a powerful African American tradition in American poetry
👀African American poetry retained concerns with the issues of the American Revolution and expressed experiences of divided loyalties
👀African Americans looked to both their African past and their problematic American present for identity

Ardhendu De

Reference

1. Stowe, Harriet Beecher. Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Ammons, Elizabeth, ed. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1994.

2. Douglass, F. (2000, April 1). Frederick Douglass: Selected Speeches and Writings (P. S. Foner & Y. Taylor, Eds.).

3.Wheatley, P. (2020, October 1). Phillis Wheatley: Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral and a Memoir of Phillis Wheatley, a Native African and a Slave.