Lytton Strachey : Biographer with Special Reference to "Queen Victoria"


Biography: A Very Difficult From of Art

It is almost an axiomatic truth that biography is a very difficult from of art. A biographer, unlike a historian, has to collect all the relevant and necessary documents and facts. He should construct his biography in such a way that it ultimately assumes the status of an art-form. Johnson has very pertinently observed: “History can be formed from permanent monuments and records: but lives can only be written from personal knowledge, which is growing everyday less, and in short time is lost forever.”

Writing A Biography: Historical Survey

It is a strenuous and uphill task, indeed to collect all the requisite materials for a biography. Again, compared to other genres of Literature i.e. drama, fiction, etc, biography is too young. Its origin dates back to 18th century. The simple reason for this belated origin of biography is that until 18th century, there was a death of genuine interest in and a becoming curiosity about the private lives of eminent personalities. It was not until 18th century that a combined operation of this curiosity and interest produced this new genre of art. It was only in the 19th century that the biography attained a full-fledged growth. A biographer has to work under several taboos, restrictions and obligations. He does not command the liberty of a novelist. Within the orbit of very much restricted liberty, a biographer has to work out. He does not dare to flout the facts or intersperse it with imagination simply because he has a constant fear that at any deviation his characters may be labeled as fictitious. This explains why most of the Victorian biographies were panegyrics. The biographers had so satisfy all by waxing eloquent on the virtue of their characters and also by covering up or omitting the shortcomings or disqualification. Thus almost all the Victoria biographies are: “Wax figures now preserved in Westminster Abbey, which were carried in funeral procession through the street-effigies that have only a smooth superficial likeness to the body in the coffin.” (Woolf, 1939)

But in the 19th century a distinction and a considerable freedom were accorded to the biographers. The reading public started looking into the biographies with reawakened consciousness. Unlike the 18th century biographers who used to maintain that their painted characters were exclusively infallible, a host of nineteenth century biography-writers like Froude and Sir Edmund Gosse proclaimed that even the eminent and esteemed personalities were subject to faults and short-comings. Thus Froude’s Carlyle in not the portrait of a man painted rosy red during the early years of the present century; Lytton Strachey emulated the tradition and pattern set forth by Froude and Sir Edmund Gosse.

Lytton Strachey, A Biographer

Lytton Strachey was an influential British biographer who made a significant contribution to the field of literary biography. His groundbreaking work, Queen Victoria, stands as a testament to his unique approach and style. 

Lytton Strachey (1880-1932) was diffident about his imaginative fecundity and inventive ability. Still, he desired to become a poet or a dramatist. But subsequently he realized that he would be able to show his creative power should he plunge into the realm of biography. Thus Strachey’s biography proved it to be a very befitting alternative which well accorded worth his genius and did suit his inventive power. Strachey concentrated his attention on the Victorian age which was marked for the existence of eminent figures and celebrated dignitaries in the annals of human civilization. The majority of these celebrities have been disfigured by the effigies created by the so-called biographers. 

Hence Strachey set himself to task of re-creating them and showing them as they really were. He undertook the function of removing the legendary hearsays and attributing the aura of real glory to his chosen personalities or characters. He came to biography with his characteristic adherence to truth. But to rebuild the image in a completely new light, shrouding over them the colour of his profound imagination without compromising with truth, is a stupendous task which demands qualities and powers analogous to those of poets and novelists.

Human Portrayal of Queen Victoria

In 1920, Strachey published Queen Victoria, which became one of his most celebrated works. This biography departed from the conventional hagiographic portrayals of monarchs and presented a more nuanced and human portrayal of Queen Victoria. Strachey delved into the personal and emotional aspects of her life, examining her relationships, desires, and vulnerabilities.

One of the key aspects of Strachey's approach was his use of irony and satire. He employed these literary devices to critique the conventional narratives surrounding Queen Victoria and to expose the hypocrisies of the Victorian era. By doing so, Strachey humanized his subject, making her relatable to readers and challenging the idealized image of the queen that had been perpetuated for decades.

Another noteworthy aspect of Strachey's biography was his exploration of Queen Victoria's relationships with her family and political figures. He delved into her complex marriage with Prince Albert and examined the dynamics between Victoria and her children. Strachey also shed light on the influence of her prime ministers, such as Disraeli and Gladstone, on her reign. Through his meticulous research and insightful analysis, Strachey painted a vivid and multi-dimensional portrait of Queen Victoria.

Again Queen Victoria was hailed for its innovative approach and lyrical prose. Strachey's writing style was marked by elegance, wit, and clarity. He eschewed the traditional academic tone and instead employed a more conversational and engaging style, which appealed to a wider audience. Strachey's biography introduced a new way of writing about historical figures, breathing life into the genre and inspiring future biographers.

The Difficulty 

While wielding his prolific pen for Queen Victoria, he encountered a great practical difficulty. Aught bulk of documents, information and credentials which had been ready before his hands posed formidable problems. He had to move about within the bounds of available facts and information. There was hardly any scope for inventing anything. He utilized the method of pick and choose and the device of selection and incision. And the result has become unique. Victoria has appeared as a living, breathing, and palpitating figure-true to the kindred points of the Queen herself.

Strachey was aware of the imposition which a biographer must on front while painting so popular a portrait as that of Queen Victoria. He neither yielded to the free play of his imagination nor fluttered the wings of his fancy within the narrow and restricted range of factuality. Thus Strachey wrote: “The first forty two years of the Queen’s life are illuminated by a great and varied quantity of authentic information. With Albert’s death, a veil descends” Now then with the descending of the veil and the death of Albert, the biographer saws before his vision a new horizon.

The Criticism

While Queen Victoria received both critical acclaim and popular success, it was not without controversy. Strachey's frank discussion of Queen Victoria's personal life and his depiction of her as a fallible human being caused a stir among some readers who preferred a more traditional and reverential approach to the monarchy. Nevertheless, his boldness in challenging the established norms of biographical writing paved the way for a more candid and psychologically insightful approach to biography.

The Stracheyan biography has distinctive flavor of its own. It aims at revealing the illustrious persons of history as real and lively specimens of humanity. He has not portrayed mere incarnations of moral values. His world is not peopled by the embodiments of virus alone. He has tried to hold the mirror up to nature.” Strachey was a scientific student proof truth. He rescued English biography from the tedium of panegyrics and decked it with living characters. He has to maintain a freedom with regarded to the essential sprit of the age. He has never compromised with the truth. If, in any case, some truthful revelation appears to be devastating, it is not Strachey’s fault. He has mingled facts with fiction so artistically as to produce an appeal equivalent to that of a drama. This explains why Virginia Woolf has described him as a ‘frustrated dramatist’. Strachey adopted a pioneering novel method of writhing biography. He called gossips and hear-says and anecdotes and then wove them into a narrative full of irony and wit and imagination, and thus created a personality which, if not lifelike, was certainly living.


Ref: 
1. Queen Victoria : Lytton Strachey : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/queenvictoria002839mbp
2. Letters: Virginia Woolf & Lytton Strachey : Woolf, Virginia, 1882-1941 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/lettersvirginiaw00wool
3. Full text of “Johnson’s Lives of the poets.” (n.d.). Full Text of “Johnson’s Lives of the Poets.” https://archive.org/stream/johnsonslivespo02napigoog/johnsonslivespo02napigoog_djvu.txt
4. "Lytton Strachey." Microsoft® Student 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008
5. Woolf, V. (1939, April 1). The Art of Biography. The Art of Biography - the Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1939/04/the-art-of-biography/654067/

Human Relationship in E.M. Forster's "A Passage to India"


A Solid Human- Relationship: Need at the Time of British-India

E.M. Forster's A Passage to India is indeed a great work which has encompassed several significant topics that had some bearing upon the society during the British rule in India. But Forster’s greatest contribution lies in the fact that in this novel he has raised the problem of human relationship and has discussed the pros and cons of the same at great length. The major fault or lacuna of the British Empire was that the polished and highly tutored dignitaries who were empowered by the British imperialist Government to rule over the Indians failed to realize the value of human relationship. But Forester has again and again sought to pinpoint this axiomatic truth that of a need a solid human- relationship, the most essential need at the time of British-India. 

Forster wholeheartedly believed in the value of personal relation, ‘the holiness of the heart’s affection'. But he did not at all subscribe to the view upheld by Fielding that “the world is a globe of man who are trying to reach one another and can best do so with the help of goodwill pies culture and intelligence.” He had an altogether different idea about the personal relationship. According to him, all arduous attempts at building up personal relationship, during the British rule, were failed by the lack of true understanding and fellow-felling. The ambit of relations struck in  narrowness of the heart. 

  Relations Struck in  Narrowness of the Heart  

Forster regarded this as a great problem which shook the very foundation of Anglo-Indian relationship. The English people suffered from a sense of superiority and they believed that the negative Indians could not be brought into the level of friendship and equal treatment. They could not be at par with the British people. This sense of vanity and the consequent lack of understanding created a permanent rife between the Indians and the English people. No amount of culture or intelligence or good gesture could bridge this yawning gap. Forster did tenaciously cling to the view that a healthy human relationship did not prevail opting to its peculiar tendency to crumble down and collapse.

Mrs. Moore and Aziz : ‘Secret Understanding of the Heart’


In  A Passage to India, human relationships play a significant role in exploring the complexities of colonialism, cultural differences, and the clash between the East and the West. The novel portrays the interactions between the British colonizers and the native Indians, highlighting the power dynamics, prejudices, and misunderstandings that shape their relationships. In the incipient section of the novel, Forster has very clearly shown the possibility of the formation of a personal relationship. Mrs. Moore and Aziz establish a ‘secret understanding of the heart’ in the solitude of the Mosque. Both of them escape from the trouble-tossed Chandra pore and take refuge in the quite atmosphere of the Mosque. Having been treated most contemptuously by the British authorities, Aziz has come to the Mosque after “shaking the dust of Anglo-India off his feet.” Mrs. Moore has also been terribly bored by the monotony of the club life and she has come to the Mosque which is completely immune from the toil and turmoil, fever and fret of Chandra pore. His purpose is to seek some panacea for her mind. Unlike her other counterparts in the novel ,Mrs. Moore is a lady of cultured mind and board heart. She has warmth of sympathy for the Indians. Aziz has very justly eulogized Mrs. Moore by saying that she is almost oriental in her attitude of sympathy towards the Indians. She gives a patient hearing to Aziz’s complaints against the autocracy of the British Government.

Fielding and Aziz: A Lasting Bond & Challenges

Similarly, Fielding and Aziz are also found to dispel the gloom of racial disparity. They are actuated by mental fellow feeling, goodwill and spontaneity of heart. Fielding has a genial personality and he possesses tolerance and a liberal attitude. Aziz in perfect affinity with Fielding is highly sensitive and impulsive by nature. Thus, one of the central relationships in the novel is between Dr. Aziz, an Indian Muslim, and Mr. Fielding, a British schoolmaster. Initially, they form a genuine friendship based on mutual respect and understanding. Their relationship challenges the prevailing stereotypes and prejudices held by both Indians and British colonizers. Through their bond, Forster explores the potential for genuine connection and unity despite the divisions of race and nationality. Of course, they have had a lot of minor differences on many matters of common interest. But all these manor and insignificant differences are dissolved by their reciprocal understanding and friendship:
    “Fielding saw that something had gone wrong and equally that it had come right, but he didn’t fidget, being an optimist where personal relation were concerned and their talk rattled on as before.”(Ch VII)(A Passage to India : Forster, E. M. : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive, n.d.)
  
 Although a friendship between Aziz and Fielding is found to in the budding stage, the temperamental differences became a greater barrier. This possibility of a friendship and mutual understanding was totally marred by individual attitudes and values. Aziz is over-sensitive and highly imaginative while fielding is national and extremely logical. He never yields to any emotional fervor. Aziz is all the time found to be loosed away by imagination. He can extend the warmth of friendship which Fielding cannot accept. Thus, in a hearty company, they are found to ill-accord each other. In a pensive, emotionally charged and reminiscent mood, Aziz shows Fielding the photograph of his deceased if. But Fielding’s response is too cold to generate reciprocity between them. Misunderstanding crops up and they submit themselves to alienation. The balance is disturbed and the bond is broken. Fielding recoils to the British side and Aziz is seen to establish identification with the Indian nationalism.

However, their friendship becomes strained when Dr. Aziz is falsely accused of assaulting Adela Quested, a young British woman. This incident exposes the underlying tensions and prejudices that persist between the British and the Indians. The accusation leads to a breakdown in trust and understanding, causing a rift in the relationship between Dr. Aziz and Mr. Fielding.

Adela Quested and Dr. Aziz: Of Miscommunication and Misinterpretation


Another significant relationship depicted in the novel is that of Adela Quested and Dr. Aziz. Adela represents the naïve and well-intentioned British visitor who struggles to understand the cultural complexities of India. Her encounter with Dr. Aziz in the Marabar Caves, which she perceives as a sexual assault, becomes a catalyst for the conflict between the British and the Indians. This incident highlights the miscommunication and misinterpretation that can arise between different cultures.

Critique And Conclusion


Forster has explicitly shown in this novel that the human relationship is likely to collapse if the intrinsic quality of imagination, feeling and understanding is absent. His relationship should not have an ephemeral effect. It must be lasting and permanent. The conversation between Fielding and Adela sufficiently reveals the fact that limitation in respect of imagination, emotional still and logical or rational attitude in all matters produces a crippling effect on the heart. 

Thus it becomes impossible to build a permanent, lasting and warm human relationship by overcoming the racial disparities and transcending the bounds of national sentiment. The rationality and the lack of understanding germinate a narrowness of the heart and myopia. Forster has given ample illustrations of this in the novel:
 “ A Friendliness as of dwarfs shaking hands, was in the air.  Both man and woman were at the height of their powers-sensible, honest, even subtle. They spoke the same language and held the same opinions, and the variety of age and sex did nit divide them. ‘I want to go on living a bit,’ or ‘I don’t believe in God’, the words were followed by a curious backwash as though the Universe had displaced itself to fill up a tiny void or as though they had seen their own gestures from an immense height-dwarfs talking, shaking hands and assuring each other that they stood on the same footing of insight.” (Ch XXIX)(A Passage to India : Forster, E. M. : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive, n.d.)

Thus, the portrayal of human relationships in A Passage to India  underscores the challenges and limitations imposed by colonialism. The colonial power dynamic between the British and the Indians creates a sense of superiority and inferiority, hindering genuine understanding and empathy. Forster critiques this dynamic and emphasizes the need for cultural sensitivity, open-mindedness, and respectful engagement between different communities.


Ref:
1. A Passage To India : Forster, E. M. : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.463445
2. Hossain, M. (n.d.). [PDF] The Colonial Encounter in a Passage to India | Semantic Scholar. [PDF] the Colonial Encounter in a Passage to India | Semantic Scholar. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Colonial-Encounter-in-a-Passage-to-India-Hossain/070f16b6a0abc6172cd0df4b5ad1842fe09f7469

Salient Features of Georgian Poetry and Inter-war Poetry


A Few Words: 

So many poets are writing early 20th century and such is the tremendous poetic output that it is impossible to give individual attention to them. Hence it is usual to divide early modern poetry into two halves- 
(a) Georgian poetry i.e. poetry of the early decades, and 
(b) poetry of the interwar years i.e. poetry of middle decades. 
Georgian Poetry and Inter-war Poetry were two significant literary movements in the early 20th century, primarily in the United Kingdom. While they shared some similarities, they also had distinct characteristics. There is much overlapping, for the poetry that began writing much earlier continues to write though the interwar years. In literature there can be no water tight compartments and such divisions are merely for the convenience of study. Let's explore the salient features of each movement:

  Georgian Poetry: 

Georgian poetry is the poetry of the early decades of 20th century when king George ruled England. It is an easily simple poetry, largely in the romantic vein, having certain marked characters like of its own. Says A.S. Collins, “The Georgians had, of course, Appositive aim, it was too treat natural thing in a clear, natural and beautiful way, neither too modern not too much like Tennyson. In their treatment of nature and social life they discarded the use of aspheric diction such as ‘theca’ and ‘thou’ and eschewed snack poetical constructions as ‘winter’ drear and ‘host on armed host’. They dropped all gorgeous and grandiloquent expressions in thought and expression. In reaction to Victorian didacticism their verse avoided “all formally religious, philosophic or in proving themes”, and "in reaction to the decadent or Aesthetics of the nineties, they avoided all subjects that smacked of sadness, weakness and café-table.”

The Georgian poets are neither impressionistic nor pantheistic but “as simple as a child’s reading book”. Their themes are “nature, love, leisure, old age, childhood, animals, sleep, bulls and other domestic or wild animals. It is poetry for the many and not for the scholarly few alone. It can be enjoyed even by the learned. Georgian poetry has been subjected to severe criticism by critics like T.S. Eliot. It has been said that the Georgian poetry is meant for  nice people and that they were too inclined to indulge in mutual praise and that it is a poetry lacking in depth and originality, and so unfit for the thoughtful  readers in the modern complex age. John Masefield, Walter De La Mare, W.H. Dories Drinkwater etc are some of the leading poets of the Georgian era.

Features of Georgian Poetry:

Nature and Romanticism: Georgian poets celebrated the beauty of the English countryside and had a strong connection to nature. They often used vivid and descriptive language to evoke a sense of awe and wonder.
Traditional Forms: Georgian poets embraced traditional poetic forms such as sonnets and odes, employing regular rhyme schemes and meters. They sought to revive and uphold traditional poetic techniques.
Personal Expression: The poets of this movement emphasized personal experiences and emotions. They explored themes of love, loss, and nostalgia, often drawing inspiration from their own lives and surroundings.
Optimism and Patriotism: Georgian poets portrayed a sense of optimism and patriotism, especially during the years leading up to World War I. Their poems often expressed a strong attachment to England and a belief in its greatness.
Accessibility: Georgian Poetry aimed to reach a broader audience, using language that was more accessible compared to the complex and abstract styles of the preceding Symbolist movement.

The years between the two world wars (1918-1940) are rich in poetic activity. As in the pre- war period, so also now, tradition and Innovation exist side by side.  The imagists, symbolists and surrealists continue to produce work of merit while the traditionalists continue largely in the Victorian and Georgian traditions. There are also poets who combine tradition with innovation, and even the most daring innovators are not entirely free from traditional influences. In the words of S.C. Chew, poetry during the period “became obscure, experimental, irregular antagonistic to did act language of small potteries, with much dependence upon complex, unstable, and fleeting as sometimes to become incomer sensible to the writers the moles.” Difficulty even obscurity, characterizes the poetry of the period, it is poetry for the learned few and not for the many, the average reader. It is a question whether poetry became difficult because the public had abandoned it or whether the public abandoned it because it had become difficult. It is full that new urges and the new aspirations need a new mode and technique of expression, and hence there is much experimentation with verse meter and symbolism. The poetry of this time also refutes the pessimism, frustration and disillusionment of the nitro-was year, and there are few poets who do not shoe an awareness of the misery and sintering caused by the war, and the problems it had lift behind in its wake.

Features of Inter-war Poetry:

Modernist Influences: Inter-war poets were influenced by the broader modernist movement, which sought to break away from traditional literary conventions. They experimented with form, language, and subject matter, often incorporating fragmented narratives and unconventional structures.
Fragmentation and Disillusionment: The horrors of World War I and the subsequent disillusionment with society influenced Inter-war poets. Their works reflected a fragmented and fragmented world, exploring themes of alienation, disillusionment, and despair.
Social and Political Commentary: Inter-war poetry engaged with social and political issues of the time. Poets often critiqued the societal norms, the impact of war, and the changing role of individuals in an industrialized and rapidly changing world.
Psychological Depth: Inter-war poets delved into the human psyche and explored themes of identity, inner turmoil, and the complexities of human emotions. They often employed stream-of-consciousness techniques and introspective introspection.
Experimental Language and Imagery: Poets of this period embraced innovative language and imagery, employing metaphors, symbolism, and allusions to convey complex emotions and ideas. They sought to challenge conventional language and evoke powerful sensory experiences.

Conclusion:

While Georgian Poetry celebrated traditional forms and focused on personal expression and patriotism, Inter-war Poetry was influenced by modernist experimentation and reflected the disillusionment and fragmentation of the post-war period. Both movements made significant contributions to English poetry and left a lasting impact on the literary landscape of the time.

What We Have Discussed here:
👉Georgian Poetry: Nature and Romanticism; Traditional Forms; Personal Expression; Optimism and Patriotism; Accessibility

👉Inter-war Poetry: Modernist Influences; Fragmentation and Disillusionment; Social and Political Commentary; Psychological Depth; Experimental Language and Imagery


Reference: (Recenly Updated)
1. Parry, J. J. (1949). [Review of A Literary History of England, by A. C. Baugh]. The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, 48(1), 147–149. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27715010
2. Samuel Claggett Chew - Wikipedia. (2021, February 7). Samuel Claggett Chew - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Claggett_Chew
3. English literature of the twentieth century : Collins, Arthur Simons, 1899- : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/englishliteratur0000coll
4. ALBERT. (2000). History of English Literature (Fifth Edition) [English]. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.

D. H.Lawrence’s Treatment of Nature in "Sons and Lovers"


D. H. Lawrence has evinced his deep love for nature in Sons and Lovers. In the village, in the lush green bosom of nature, Lawrence spent his boyhood or early days. He had a close contact with nature and an intense longing for natural objects. Because of his close and intimate association with natural objects and surrounding, nature did hunt his imagination to a great extent and it does explain why Lawrence possessed almost a poetic sensibility with regard to his delineation of nature. It is admittedly true that the setting of the novel i.e. Bentwood is a mining town. Also it is indubitably true that own was very much close to the world of nature. The characters or people figuring in the novel are not immune from the world of nature. They, of course, live in an artificial set-up or environment of society. Industrialization or more precisely machination was indeed exerting its silting influences o the refined feelings and sentiments of the people. But nevertheless the characters of the novel live and breathe, mingle and jostle together in a surrounding which is in closer proximity to the world of nature. It was indeed the countryside which enkindled the fancy of Lawrence; and almost all the science, surcharged with emotional profundity are set in the background of nature. The untarnished beauty and uncontaminated freshness of nature environment have accentuated and heightened the feelings and emotions of the characters. The intensity and poignancy of the feelings of the characters may aptly be attributed to this background of nature.

Irish Politics as Reflected in Modern Drama (Abbey Theatre)



Irish politics, with its rich history of colonization, struggle for independence, and the partition of Ireland, has provided a compelling backdrop for modern drama. Many playwrights explore the impact of these political events on the lives of ordinary people, highlighting themes of identity, nationalism, and power dynamics. Modern Irish drama particularly early ambit of Abbey Theatre, the early political troubles, national identity and socioeconomic inequality took the upperhand. However in later segment, power and corruption, feminism and gender politics, immigration and integration, reconciliation and healing become the core subject.

As we all know, one of the defining political conflicts in Irish history, the Troubles in Northern Ireland, has been a significant source of inspiration for modern drama. Playwrights often delve into the complex relationships between Catholics and Protestants, the violence and social unrest, and the search for reconciliation and peace. Evidently, Irish politics plays a crucial role in shaping and defining Irish national identity, and this theme is frequently explored in modern drama. Playwrights examine the tension between Irish heritage and British influence, the struggle for self-determination, and the ongoing debates surrounding Irishness and what it means to be Irish.

 Irish politics and the policies implemented by British governments have had a profound impact on socioeconomic inequality in the country. Modern drama often delves into the struggles faced by marginalized communities, exploring issues such as poverty, housing crises, and the effects of austerity measures. The exercise of power and its potential for corruption is a recurring theme in Irish politics, and it finds its way into modern drama. Playwrights examine the influence of political figures, the abuse of power, and the consequences of corruption on society and individuals.

 Modern Irish drama also reflects the evolving role of women in Irish society and politics. Playwrights explore themes of gender inequality, reproductive rights, and the fight for gender equality, highlighting the intersection between politics and women's lived experiences. Later, Ireland's emergence as a multicultural society has influenced contemporary political discourse. Modern drama reflects the challenges faced by immigrants, the question of national identity in a diverse society, and the role of politics in shaping attitudes towards immigration and integration.

Now, Abbey Theatre is the most famous of Irish theatres, one of the most famous in the British Isles, if not in Europe. It is repertory-theater Company and the auditorium in which the company performs, is in Dublin, Ireland.  It was the centre of the Irish Dramatic movement founded in 1899 by W.B. Yeats and Lady Gregory. Originally established to present Irish plays about Irish subjects, the company later expanded its repertory to include classical drama, including that of British playwright William Shakespeare, and contemporary works by dramatists of continental Europe. 

The aim of the Irish Dramatic movement was to present Irish plays on Irish subjects preformed by Irish actors. It is a product of the Irish cultural revival that began late in the 19th century. The revival was initiated largely by the Irish poet and dramatist William Butler Yeats, who urged Irish writers to draw their inspiration directly from Irish life and traditions rather than from English and European sources.

The building itself was the result of a conversion of the old theatre of the Mechanics institute in Abbey Street and the old city morgue next to it. Its creation was made possible through the munificence (and tea) of Annie Horniman (1860-1937), who was later the pioneer of the Manchester School. English theater manager Annie Elizabeth Fredericka Horniman paid for construction of the original Abbey Theatre building. With her financial assistance, the Irish National Theatre Society established in 1904 the repertory company that also became known as the Abbey Theatre. The next eighty-five years was to bring forward plays by almost all Irish dramatists of any note.


Abbey Theatre
Apart from Annie Horniman, Lady Gregory and William Butler Yeats, the main moving spirits of the Abbey were J.M. Synge and the Fay brothers. The first plays presented were On Baile’s Strand and Cathleen Houlihan by Yeats and Spreading the News by Lady Gregory. Later came Synge’s The Play boy of the Western World (1907) which caused riots because Irish morality was offended by a reference in the text to a woman’s shift (i.e. a chemise). The fortunes of the theatre declined somewhat with the removal of Annie Horniman’s financial support. Singe died in 1909 and Yeats resigned as a result of a dispute with Lady Gregory, who was to continue until she retired in 1928. Among distinguished Irish playwrights to have their plays produced at the Abby in its earlier years were Padraic Column(1881-1972), St John Greer Ervine(1883-1971) and Lennox Robinson(1886-1958), who was manager of the Abby from 1910 to 1923(apart from a short break), in which year he became director. After the First World War there were more financial troubles, which were partly relived by there famous plays by Sean O’Casey (1880-1964). These plays treat the Irish war of independence and the Irish economy. The plays referred to deal with the theme of Irish struggle for independence.

Irish politics has been marked by division and conflict, but modern drama also explores the themes of reconciliation and healing. Playwrights delve into the complexities of forgiveness, the process of coming to terms with the past, and the role of politics in fostering understanding and unity. Modern drama is a powerful tool for addressing and commenting on current political issues in Ireland. Playwrights tackle topics such as climate change, housing crises, healthcare, and the impact of globalization, offering insightful perspectives and sparking conversations on pressing political matters.


Ref:
1. W. B. Yeats, man and poet : Jeffares, A. Norman : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/wbyeatsmanpoet00jeff    
2. A History Of English Drama 1660 1900 : Allardyce Nicoll : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.58964
3. Bentley, Eric. "Abbey Theatre." Microsoft® Student 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.

George Herbert’s Contribution to Poetry: Secular Ambitions through Fusing Religious Themes with a Humanistic Perspective


George Herbert (1593 - 1633) is an English poet of the metaphysical schoolUniversity of Cambridge graduate was unsuccessful in getting a play at court unemployed for eleven years (from 1619 to 1630). He devoted secular ambitions, however, and took holy orders in the Church of England in 1630. He spent the rest of his life as rector in Bemerton. As a poet George Herbert was temperamentally and totally different from John Donne. His poems are characterized by a precision of language, a metrical versatility, and an ingenious use of imagery or conceits that was favored by the metaphysical school of poets such as John Donne. However, he was in two minds – whether to take to orders or not. He had spells of introspection regarding his motive becoming a priest.

A TO Z Literary Principles from History of English Literature: Note 28



History of English Literature- Miscellaneous

1 Q: Who were the two English lawyers who produced the first English tragedy on the Seneca model in blank verse?
A: The two English lawyers were Norton and Sackville.

2 Q: Where did English prose first make its appearance, even before the advent of King Alfred?
A: English prose first made its appearance in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles.

3 Q: Who were the two editors of the first Folio of Shakespeare, published in 1623?
A: The two editors of the first Folio of Shakespeare were Heminge and Condell.


4 Q: Name four poets associated with the 'Decadent Movement.'
A: The four poets associated with the 'Decadent Movement' are Oscar Wilde, Lionel Johnson, Ernest Dowson, and Arthur Symons.

5 Q: Which Roman playwright influenced Elizabethan Revenge Tragedy and is famous for Medea?
A: The Roman playwright who influenced Elizabethan Revenge Tragedy and is famous for Medea is Seneca.

6 Q: To which unknown poet of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Patience, and Cleanness is the religious allegory in alliterative verse of the Middle English period usually attributed?
A: The religious allegory in alliterative verse of the Middle English period is usually attributed to the unknown poet of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Patience, and Cleanness.

7 Q: Who is generally regarded as the 'Demosthenes of England' and wrote masterpieces such as 'On the Impeachment of Warren Hastings' and 'A Vindication of Natural Society'?
A: Edmund Burke is generally regarded as the 'Demosthenes of England' and wrote masterpieces such as 'On the Impeachment of Warren Hastings' and 'A Vindication of Natural Society.'

8 Q: What is the constant refrain in Deor's Lament?
A: The constant refrain in Deor's Lament is 'That was lived through, so can this be' or other words, 'His sorrow passed away, so will mine.'

9 Q: What is Swift's greatest satire?
A: Swift's greatest satire is Gulliver's Travels.

10 Q: Who completed Marlowe's poem Hero and Leander?
A: George Chapman completed Marlowe's poem Hero and Leander.

11 Q: Name three plays written by Shakespeare in his last period.
A: The three plays written by Shakespeare in his last period are The Tempest, Cymbeline, and Winter's Tale.

12 Q: Who were the editors of Shakespeare's First Folio (1623)?
A: The editors of Shakespeare's First Folio (1623) were Heminge and Condell.

13 Q: Who wrote the Latin text Cura Pastoralis, which was translated by King Alfred?
A: The Latin text Cura Pastoralis was written by Pope Gregory and translated by King Alfred.

14 Q: What does the bird phoenix symbolize in the poem Phoenix?
A: The bird phoenix in the poem symbolizes Christ and his resurrection.

15 Q: Upon what work is More's Utopia based?
A: More's Utopia is based on Plato's The Republic.

16 Q: For what reason is Wycliffe often referred to as the father of English prose?
A: Wycliffe is often referred to as the father of English prose for his translation of the Bible.

17 Q: In what form is Spenser's The Shepherd's Calendar written?
A: Spenser's The Shepherd's Calendar is written in the form of dialogues.

18 Q: Name three Scottish poets who were influenced by Chaucer.
A: The three Scottish poets who were influenced by Chaucer are King James I, Dunbar, and Henryson.

19 Q: From what work is Butler's satire Hudibras derived?
A: Butler's satire Hudibras is derived from Don Quixote.

20 Q: In which anthology were the poems of Wyatt and Surrey anthologized?
A: The poems of Wyatt and Surrey were anthologized in Tottel's Miscellany (1557).

21 Q: Who was the first English poet to have signed his works?
A: Cynewulf was the first English poet to have signed his works.

22 Q: To whom were Shakespeare's poems Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece dedicated?
 A: Shakespeare's poems Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece were dedicated to Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton.

23 Q: Whose story does Shakespeare's The Rape of Lucrece tell?
A: Shakespeare's The Rape of Lucrece tells the story of Tarquin.

24 Q: Which work is associated with Robert Buchanan and the term "The Fleshly School of Poetry"?
A: Robert Buchanan's work is associated with "The Fleshly School of Poetry."

25 Q: Match the following pseudonyms with their corresponding author's actual name:

Elia: Charles Lamb
Boz: Charles Dickens
Currer Bell: Charlotte Bronte
Ellis Bell: Emily Bronte
Acton Bell: Anne Bronte
Mark Twain: Samuel Clemens
George Eliot: Mary Ann Evans
Saki: Hector Munro
26 Q: What does the term "Annus Mirabilis" of Dryden mean?
A: The term "Annus Mirabilis" of Dryden means 'year of miracles.'

** Q: Upon which play is Wycherley's The Plain Dealer modeled?
A: Wycherley's The Plain Dealer is modeled on Moliere's The Misanthrope.

Ref:
 1. ALBERT. (2000). History of English Literature (Fifth Edition) [English]. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
  2. A history of English literature : Compton-Rickett, Arthur, 1869-1937 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/historyofenglish00comprich

John Donne as a Poet : Changing Sensibility


We find in John Donne’s (1572-1631) poetry a mirror of the changing sensibility of his age. Ptolemaic system of astronomy with earth as the centre of universe – geocentric - was in vogue until the period of John Donne. Copernican system – of heliocentric – theory which considered the sun as the cento around which the earth went round came into vogue during Donne’s period as exemplified in his statement ‘the new philosophy calls all in doubt’. Skepticism ruled the roost in the beginning of the 17th century. Scientific proof was anticipated for everything. 

Thus we find in Donne’s poems a strange ‘unpoetic’ kind of imagery: that of the telescope, of geometrical instruments, of mining machines and all other concomitants of the Renaissance laboratory. Even the declaration of a woman’s love cannot be taken as true as it hath me loves no empirical basic. After the espousal of the Church there was a renewal of poetic activity with religious bent of mind. He concentrated all his energy and passion that he had directed towards women, at God. 

John Donne
Donne’s longest poem, The Progresse of the Soule, ironically depicts the transmigration of the soul of Eve's apple. Donne's Divine Poems also bring forth his argument of divinity.  The meeting point of Donne’s religious poetry and his love poetry is its spontaneity of diction. The words strike a note which is colloquial and at the same time modern. ‘For god’s sake, hold your tongue, let me love’ (The Canonization). His Holy Sonnets is a devotional tranquility. 

We can, however, search his iconic depth of love and devotion in Devotions upon Emergent Occasions, a prose work in which he treated the themes of death and human relationships; it contains these famous lines:
“No man is an Iland, intire of it selfe; ...
any man's death diminishes me, because I am involved in Mankinde; and therefore
never send to know for whom the bell tolls; It tolls for thee.”

 Donne has no liking for Petrarchan and pastoral conventions and Arcadian countryside. His poetry is specially called ‘metaphysical’, partly because of the use of scientific imagery (science was referred to as ‘metaphysics’ in his day) and partly because of his unusual linking of physical objects to abstract metaphysical concepts that have nothing in common between them. (Comparison of a set of compasses to the love between a man and his wife). Such example is found in John Donne's A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning.  In this poem, Donne employs a conceit comparing two lovers to the legs of a compass, highlighting the idea of a spiritual connection that remains strong even when physically apart.  

Donne is exemplified through changing sensibility in his works. His early poetry embraced a bold and sensual style, emphasizing earthly love. However, his later works reflected a shift towards a more spiritual and introspective sensibility, exploring themes of divine love, mortality, and the complexities of human experience. Though neglected and ignored in the 18th and 19th centuries, Donne was rediscovered for all his ‘unromantic qualities’ of his imagery at the beginning of the 20th  century by T.S. Eliot and other.


References

 1.ALBERT. (2000). History of English Literature (Fifth Edition) [English]. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
2. Legouis & Cazamian’s : History of English Literature - in 5 Vols. (n.d.). Legouis & Cazamian&Rsquo;S : History of English Literature - in 5 Vols. https://www.shreepublishers.com/index.php?route=product/product&product_id=1190
3.Full text of “Johnson’s Lives of the poets.” (n.d.). Full Text of “Johnson’s Lives of the Poets.” https://archive.org/stream/johnsonslivespo02napigoog/johnsonslivespo02napigoog_djvu.txt

Major Questions in William Shakespeare's KING LEAR: King Lear a Sinner? , Lear's Madness, The Portrait of Cordelia, Central Theme, Fool, Natural Elements, Subplot, Theme of Betrayal, Justice and Divine Justice, Cordelia Challenge Traditional Gender Roles, Ending , Political and Social Context


***Is Lear a man more sinned against – than sinning?

This question relates to the whole issue and theme of justice, and its existence or otherwise in King Lear. On the one hand Lear gives in to flattery, makes a bad decision to split his kingdom, and when he does so splits it unfairly. He banishes cruelly the only daughter who loves him, and a nobleman who is devoted to his service. He attempts to live like a king with none of a king’s responsibilities of duties, and takes himself out into a storm when his followers are dismissed. On the other hand he is punished for his lack of self – knowledge his vanity, and his inability to distinguish the truth from falsehood by losing his wealth, his sanity, his daughter, and finally his life. He was certainly sinned, but only through common faults which under different circumstances might have gone unnoticed and unpunished.
(Note: Regarding the statement "Is Lear a man more sinned against – than sinning?", it refers to the question of whether Lear is a victim of circumstances and the actions of others, or if he bears responsibility for the tragic events that unfold. The statement implies that Lear has been wronged more than he has wronged others.)

***Why does Lear go mad?

Primarily, Lear goes mad primarily due to his inability to handle the consequences of his own actions, the betrayal he experiences, and the overwhelming sense of loss and abandonment. Lear goes mad because he is robbed of the honour, respect, and kindness due to a king, a father and an old man. He cannot avoid the realization that these are being denied him; he cannot face the realization that it is partly through his own fault, and the conflict tears his mind apart. Also the denial of family implicit his treatment suggests a collapse in the order that binds the universe together. His suffering enforces self – knowledge, his which initially he cannot cope. His suffering and part – knowledge also show him a hitherto unsuspected cruel and harsh world where good and evil a like die and suffer. This new insight (as is the case with Hamlet) induces madness and helps to preserve it in him.

***What is the function of the Fool?

William Shakespeare

The Fool serves as both a comic relief and a truth-teller in "King Lear." He provides witty commentary, offers critical insights, and acts as a voice of reason and wisdom amidst the chaos. The Fool provides humour in the play by parodying its serious themes. He also shows the audience the truth through his capacity to see things in their bare essentials. He provides a common sense vision of events in the play. He acts like a Chorus, pointing out what is happening and increasing the pain and the pathos by his humour. He alone realizes fully the incongruities that typify the play – the king reduced to a beggar, the Fool the only wise man in the court, and so forth. When Lear attains a similar degree of knowledge and insight in and after his madness, the Fool is seen no more: he is no longer necessary, because Lear has taken his place.

***How effective is the Portrait of Cordelia?

The portrait of Cordelia in "King Lear" is effective in portraying her as a symbol of loyalty, virtue, and moral integrity, contrasting with the deceit and corruption of other characters.  Cordelia is the only daughter who loves her father truly. She is banished unfairly, but returns to save him when he is in need and when she could easily have left him. She cherishes and loves him to the utmost. As such she appears to offer a portrait of complete goodness. One drawback to her portrayal is that, of necessity, she vanishes off the scene for quite a while, during which time the audience may lose interest in her. It is sometimes asked why she does not flatter her father. This would an old man. By being so brutally honest and refusing to change her mind she brings about no positive result, and in fact helps to ensure the destruction of her father by given the kingdom to Goneril and Regan. She has been described as a bore, and as stubborn as her father.

** What is the central theme of "King Lear"?

The central theme of "King Lear" revolves around the consequences of power, greed, and the disruption of natural order. It explores the destructive effects of unchecked ambition, the consequences of flawed judgment, and the complexities of human relationships.

** How does Shakespeare explore the theme of madness in the play?

Shakespeare explores the theme of madness in "King Lear" through the character of King Lear himself. As Lear descends into madness, his thoughts and actions become erratic and irrational. This portrayal highlights the fragility of the human mind and the consequences of emotional turmoil.

** What role do the natural elements, such as storms and nature, play in "King Lear"?

The natural elements, such as storms and nature, play a significant role in "King Lear" as they mirror and reflect the chaotic events and emotional turmoil of the characters. Storms symbolize the internal turmoil and upheaval within the characters' minds and also represent the breakdown of social order and the disruption of the natural world.

** How does the subplot involving Gloucester and his sons parallel the main plot of the play?

The subplot involving Gloucester and his sons, Edmund and Edgar, parallels the main plot of the play. Both Lear and Gloucester are deceived by their treacherous offspring, highlighting the theme of betrayal and the tragic consequences it brings. The subplot provides a mirrored narrative that emphasizes the overarching themes of filial ingratitude and the destructive nature of ambition.

** What is the significance of the Fool's character and his interactions with King Lear?

The Fool's character in "King Lear" serves multiple purposes. He entertains the audience with his wit and humor, provides comic relief, and acts as a voice of reason and truth-teller to King Lear. The Fool's interactions with Lear often reveal harsh realities and offer insightful commentary on the events unfolding, emphasizing the themes of folly, wisdom, and the consequences of actions.

** How does the theme of betrayal unfold throughout the play?

Betrayal is a recurring theme in "King Lear." Characters betray one another through deceit, manipulation, and treachery. Goneril and Regan betray their father, Edmund betrays his father Gloucester, and even Cordelia's refusal to flatter Lear can be seen as a betrayal in his eyes. This theme underscores the corrupting influence of power and the breakdown of trust within familial relationships.

** What is the role of justice and divine justice in "King Lear"?

Justice and divine justice are significant aspects of "King Lear." The play explores the idea of cosmic justice and the concept that wrongdoing leads to suffering and ultimately punishment. The characters who commit acts of betrayal, deceit, and cruelty face dire consequences, while those who embody virtue and loyalty often meet tragic ends as well, highlighting the complexities of justice and its indiscriminate nature.

** How does the character of Cordelia challenge traditional gender roles and expectations?

The character of Cordelia challenges traditional gender roles and expectations in "King Lear." She defies societal norms by refusing to engage in empty flattery to win her father's favor. Cordelia's steadfastness, integrity, and moral strength contrast with the manipulative and power-hungry actions of other female characters in the play, challenging conventional notions of femininity and highlighting the importance of authenticity and truth.

** What is the significance of the ending and the ultimate fate of the characters?

The ending of "King Lear" and the ultimate fate of the characters are significant. The play concludes with multiple deaths and the tragic demise of several key characters, highlighting the devastating consequences of their actions. The ending serves as a reflection of the moral and emotional devastation caused by the pursuit of power, betrayal, and the distortion of familial bonds.

** How does the play reflect the political and social context of Shakespeare's time?

"King Lear" reflects the political and social context of Shakespeare's time through its exploration of power dynamics, political corruption, and the consequences of misrule. The play depicts a world where authority figures abuse their power, betray their responsibilities, and disregard the well-being of their subjects, resonating with the political tensions and upheavals of Elizabethan England. Additionally, societal expectations, gender roles, and the hierarchical structure are questioned and challenged throughout the play.


Ref:
1. ALBERT. (2000). History of English Literature (Fifth Edition) [English]. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
2. Shakespearean tragedy : lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth : Bradley, A. C. (Andrew Cecil), 1851-1935 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/shakespeareantra1905brad

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