Analyzing William Blake’s Songs of Innocence (1789) and Songs of Experience (1794)


“An honesty against which the whole world conspires because it is unpleasant.” -T. S. Eliot

William Blake was hardly known in his life time though he was most original, strongly individualistic, and mostly a solitary figure. Dante Gabriel Rossetti, through his edition of Blake’s poems, brought him to public attention. In fact, Blake was a genius who distinguished himself in poetry, engraving and painting. He lived in London unlike many other poets who lived in the countryside. He had little formal education, but he taught himself. He was teepee in the Bible, Elizabethan literature and Milton. He knew many language including Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French and Italian.

Blake was a man of vision who saw ultimate truth at moments of great illumination. Vision is for him the great secret of life. His endive work poetry or panting is an attempt to develop this faculty of vision so that man seems to understand and thereby forgive and at righty. 

William Blake’s Songs of Innocence (1789) and Songs of Experience (1794) are his best-known works of poetry and have had a lasting influence on children’s literature. Blake’s Songs of Innocence (1789) Created through a new process called illuminated painting are examples of originality. He equated his extreme sense of freedom and happiness to the condition of childhood. In these poems, he says that childhood is the original state of happiness, ultimate enjoyment and unity. Some Songs, such as the “Introduction” and “The Lamb,” explore the innocence of children’s understanding of God and the natural world. In his Songs of Experience (1794) he expresses his deep indignation at the hypocrisy and cruelly in the world. In the marriage of Heaven and Hell he affirms the re-integration of the human soul divided by Innocence (Heaven) and Experience. For example, “The Chimney Sweeper” and “The Garden of Love,” reveal the hardships both children and adults must confront in the unsheltered world of “experience.” 


Ref: 1. History of English Literature- Albert     
     2. The Concise Cambridge History of English Literature
      3. Beacham's Guide to Literature for Young Adults

A TO Z Literary Principles from History of English Literature: Note 40


A Set of 26 Objective Questions & Answers:

The Rise and Journey of Periodical Essay

1. When did periodicals as we understand them today originate?

    The middle of the 17th century.

      2. What is a little magazine?

        A periodical devoted to publishing specialized, avant-garde writing and criticism.

          3. Why are little magazines generally short-lived?

            Due to limited circulation and marginal financial backing.

              4. How have most periodicals historically differed from newspapers?

                In format, publication schedule, and content.

                  5. How have online magazines impacted the readers' reading habits?

                  Online magazines have provided readers with convenient access to a wide range of content, allowing them to read and engage with publications anytime and anywhere, often on their mobile devices or computers.

                    6. Name some of the earliest periodicals in different countries.

                      Erbauliche Monaths-Unterredungen (1663-1668) in Germany, Journal des Sçavans (1665) in France, and Philosophical Transactions (1665) in England.

                        7. Which periodical was the first to use the word "magazine" to denote a forum for entertaining reading?

                          The Gentleman's Magazine (1731-1907).

                            8. Who were the founders of The Tatler and The Spectator?

                              Richard Steele and Joseph Addison.

                                9. What was the genre and influence of The Tatler and The Spectator?

                                  They were 18th-century periodicals mixing politics, serious essays, and satire, and they were enormously popular and influential.

                                    10. When was the Gentleman's Magazine first published?

                                      In 1731.

                                        11. What were some similar publications to the Gentleman's Magazine?

                                          The London Magazine (1732-1784), the Scots Magazine (1739-1817), the Oxford Magazine (1768-1782), and the European Magazine (1782-1826).

                                            12. Which publications were landmarks in the development of the literary periodical?

                                              The Museum (1746-1747) and the Monthly Review (1749-1845).


                                                13. Name three important Tory periodicals from the same period.

                                                  The Critical Review (1756-1817), the London Review (1775-1780), and the British Critic (1793-1843).

                                                    14. Which German periodical was devoted to commentary on new literary ideas?

                                                      Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung (1785-1849).

                                                        15. What is the Edinburgh Review and when was it published?

                                                          It is one of the most famous and influential periodicals, published from 1802 to 1929.

                                                            16. Name two monthly and quarterly literary reviews connected to Edgar Allan Poe.

                                                              Graham's Magazine (1826-1858) and The Southern Literary Messenger (1834-1864).

                                                                17. Which magazine is still published today and began in 1809?

                                                                  The Quarterly Review.

                                                                    18. Which magazines in the early 20th century represented more sophisticated literary tastes?

                                                                      Smart Set (1900-1930), Vanity Fair (1913-1936; revived in 1983), and the American Mercury (1924-1951).

                                                                        19. What contributed to the increase in the number of periodicals from the beginning of the 19th century?

                                                                          The steadily increasing number of periodicals continued until the First World War.

                                                                            20. Name some important women's magazines from the late 1800s.

                                                                              Ladies' (later Woman's) Home Companion (1873-1957), McCall's Magazine (1876), Ladies' Home Journal (1883), Good Housekeeping (1885), and Vogue (1892).

                                                                                21. Why has the number of periodicals decreased since the Second World War?

                                                                                  Mainly due to the high production costs associated with printing and distribution.

                                                                                    22. How have online magazines impacted the publishing industry?

                                                                                      Online magazines have revolutionized the publishing industry by providing greater accessibility, reaching wider audiences, and reducing production costs.

                                                                                        23. What are some advantages of online magazines compared to traditional print magazines?

                                                                                          Advantages of online magazines include instant availability, interactive content, multimedia elements, global reach, and cost-effectiveness.

                                                                                            24. What are some challenges faced by online magazines?

                                                                                              Challenges for online magazines include competition for online visibility, monetization strategies, maintaining reader engagement, and addressing technological advancements and changes.

                                                                                                25. How has the digital age influenced the future of periodicals?

                                                                                                  The digital age has brought significant changes to the periodical industry, with online magazines becoming more prevalent. While traditional print periodicals still exist, the shift towards digital platforms and online publications has reshaped the landscape of periodical publishing.

                                                                                                  26. What are some examples of niche online magazines?

                                                                                                  There are various niche online magazines catering to specific interests or industries, such as Wired (technology), National Geographic (science and nature), Bon Appétit (food and cooking), and Entrepreneur (business and startups).


                                                                                                  Ref: 
                                                                                                    1. ALBERT. (2000). History of English Literature (Fifth Edition) [English]. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
                                                                                                    2. A history of English literature : Compton-Rickett, Arthur, 1869-1937 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/historyofenglish00comprich

                                                                                                  A TO Z Literary Principles from History of English Literature: Note 39


                                                                                                  Short notes on History of English Literature: Arcadia and Utopia
                                                                                                  A Set of 26 Objective Questions & Answers
                                                                                                  Short notes on History of English Literature: Arcadia

                                                                                                  1. Who wrote the prose romance Arcadia?

                                                                                                  Philip Sidney.

                                                                                                  2. In what form was the work Arcadia written?

                                                                                                  Arcadia is a prose romance interspersed with verse.

                                                                                                  3. What is Arcadia considered to be in terms of English literature?

                                                                                                  The first considerable work in English pastoral romance.

                                                                                                  4. Where does the action of Arcadia take place?

                                                                                                  In the idealized setting of Arcadia.

                                                                                                  5. What is the significance of Sidney's Arcadia?

                                                                                                  It was famous in its day as a pastoral romance.

                                                                                                  6. Which historic event made a prayer from Arcadia deeply significant?

                                                                                                  When King Charles repeated it facing death on the scaffold in 1649.

                                                                                                  7. What role does Arcadia play in the story of love and chivalry?

                                                                                                  It serves as the background for the story.

                                                                                                  8. Who are Musidorus and Pyrocles in Arcadia?

                                                                                                  They are characters disguised as a peasant and a woman, respectively.

                                                                                                  9. Who does King Basilius fall in love with in Arcadia?

                                                                                                  King Basilius falls in love with Pyrocles disguised as a woman.

                                                                                                  10. What happens when the queen discovers the deception in Arcadia?

                                                                                                  The queen also falls in love with Pyrocles.

                                                                                                  11. How does Arcadia contribute to the history of the novel?

                                                                                                  It marks a well-defined stage in the history of the novel.

                                                                                                  12. How would you describe the writing style of Arcadia?

                                                                                                  The style of Arcadia is highly "conceited," with elaborate analogies, balanced parenthetical asides, and the use of pathetic fallacies.

                                                                                                  13. What qualities can be found in Arcadia's writing?

                                                                                                  Arcadia has moments of idyllic simplicity and stylized pastoral charm.
                                                                                                  Short notes on History of English Literature: Utopia

                                                                                                  14. Who is the author of the book Utopia?

                                                                                                  Thomas More.

                                                                                                  15. How does Utopia differ from other literature of its time?

                                                                                                  Utopia is a powerful and original study of social conditions, unlike anything that had appeared before, except for some points of resemblance with Plato's Republic.

                                                                                                  16. Who are the main characters in Utopia?

                                                                                                  The main characters are Thomas More, his friend Peter Giles, and Raphael Hythloday, a Portuguese seaman.

                                                                                                  17. Where does the encounter between More, Giles, and Hythloday take place?

                                                                                                  The encounter takes place in Antwerp after leaving Church service.

                                                                                                  18. What kind of world did Hythloday find in Utopia?

                                                                                                  Hythloday found a far different world from European corruption, crime, waste, and war in Utopia.

                                                                                                  19. What are some characteristics of the ideal state described by Hythloday in the second part of Utopia?

                                                                                                  The ideal state has a truly representative government, a communistic economy, a six-hour workday, and emphasizes happiness as the highest good.

                                                                                                  20. How do the Utopians view war?

                                                                                                  The Utopians detest war and bear arms only in self-defense.

                                                                                                  21. What is one notable aspect of Utopian society?

                                                                                                  Utopia practices complete religious toleration.

                                                                                                  22. What does Utopia symbolize in terms of humanistic principles?

                                                                                                  Utopia represents a retinol world governed by truly humanistic principles.

                                                                                                  23. How does More's Utopia critique English society and government?

                                                                                                  More uses the fictional comparison of Utopia with England to point out problems in English society and government.

                                                                                                  24. In what language did Thomas More write Utopia?

                                                                                                  Thomas More wrote Utopia in Latin, the scholarly language of the 16th century.

                                                                                                  25. What works of European literature were influenced by Utopia?

                                                                                                  Utopia's influence can be found in Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels (1726) and Voltaire's Candide (1759).

                                                                                                  26. What are some of the aspects covered in Utopia, as described by More?

                                                                                                  Utopia covers the Utopian society, the geography of Utopia, and the Utopians' ideas about wealth, the value of money, and gold, among other topics.


                                                                                                  Ref: 
                                                                                                    1. ALBERT. (2000). History of English Literature (Fifth Edition) [English]. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
                                                                                                    2. A history of English literature : Compton-Rickett, Arthur, 1869-1937 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/historyofenglish00comprich

                                                                                                  A TO Z Literary Principles from History of English Literature: Note 38


                                                                                                  Short notes on: Poetic Term /Rhetoric/ Figure of Speech

                                                                                                  A Set of 26 Objective Questions & Answers

                                                                                                  1. Ballad

                                                                                                    The Ballad has been defined in the Reader's companion to world Literature as “a narrative song - poem usually relating a single, dramatic incident, in a form suitable for singing or rhythmical chanting ". Ballads are of two kinds -- the folk ballads and the literary ballads. The authors of the former are unknown; the authors of latter are known literary figures. Ballads and more especially folk ballads are characterized by simplicity of language, terseness of expression, directness of narration, the use of archaic words and repletion of phrases and lines to achieve a cumulative effect. They are usually objective and impersonal, and devote little attention to character portraiture or setting.

                                                                                                  Bishop’s Reliques of English poetry contain some of the best ballads in English.

                                                                                                  2. Blank Verse

                                                                                                    Each line of Blank verse contains ten syllables. The pre - dominant beat is iambic. The lines are unrhymed. Blank verse is written in unrhymed iambic pentameter. This has been most popular among the best and the poorest technicians. If each line is a complete thought, then it is ' end stop ‘. If the ideas flow from one line to the next, then it is enjambled. The pause within the line is called ' caesura ‘.
                                                                                                  Exp: Nine times the space that measures day and night

                                                                                                            To mortal men, he, with his, horrid crew - - - - -
                                                                                                                                                                                            Paradise Lost
                                                                                                                                                                                                 Milton

                                                                                                  3. Dramatic Monologue

                                                                                                  It is type of poem written in the form of a single speech by a lone speaker with an audience where a miniature drama unfolds and one is aware of the reactions of the audience even though that audience never utters a word. Browning used the form to great effect in poems like My Last Duchess, Andre de Sarto , The Bishop order His Tomb , Laboratory etc . Tennyson's Ulysses, T. S. Eliot's The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock are other notable examples. We must note that psychological insight, analytical subtlety, and power of dramatic interpretation are the man features of this type of poetry.

                                                                                                  4. Elegy

                                                                                                  Elegy as defined in classical literature is a poem composed of elegiac tones or sombre meditation. Notably death, war, love and such themes are central part of this poem which is however variably used at different times. For example Donne’s Elegies are love poems. But the  celebrated use of this type is the formal and sustained lament for the death of a particular person which usually ends in consolation Few notable examples are Tennyson's In Memorian (elegy on The of Arthun Hallam) , Shelly's Adonias (elegy on the death of Keats), Thomas Gray's Elegy (on the death in general) etc .

                                                                                                  5. Epic

                                                                                                  Epic is a narrative poem. It deals with the martial exploits of some national hero. In subject it is solemn, in style it is grand and elevated. There are many episodes in an epic which sum up two salient features of an epic - age - conscience and dialogism. Few other notable features are -- invocation, Medias res, tournament, dues ex machina etc. There are two types of epic -- classical and Romantic.

                                                                                                   Exp: Milton's paradise Lost -- Homer Iliad , and Odyssey

                                                                                                  virgil Aeneid , Balmkib Ramayan , Vyasa's Maha bharata are great epics in world history .

                                                                                                  6. Fleshly school of poetry

                                                                                                  This is a pejorative term used by Robert Buchanan to describe the work of the pre - Raphaelites, both painters and poets. This group or Brotherhood as they were called included poets like Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Swinburne and it advanced the style and spirit of Italian painting before the Renaissance painter Raphael. It delighted in the sensuous aspects of art. The chief aim of these writers was to depict or create beauty for its own sake, without any regard of material reward or for the approval of the moralists. Their poems are really things of beauty.

                                                                                                  Exp : " The sun was gone now ; the curled moon
                                                                                                                was like a little feather
                                                                                                                Flutter far down the gulf; and now
                                                                                                                She spoke through the still weather
                                                                                                                Her voice was like the voice of stars
                                                                                                                Had when they sang tog ether.”

                                                                                                                                                                       The Blessed Damozel
                                                                                                                                                                 ---    D. G. Rossetti

                                                                                                  7. Free Verse

                                                                                                  Here the rhythmic is determined by the subject matter. The lines do not follow regular meter but vary from thought to thought. Rhyme is usually not used. Walt Whitman and Carl Sandburg have helped to establish this as a staple in the repertory of the modern poet. Free verse is a modern form and therefore the images and the language used by the poet tend to be modern.

                                                                                                  Example:  “He was found by the Bureau of satistics to be
                                                                                                  One against whome there was no official complaint.
                                                                                                  And all the reports on his conduct agree
                                                                                                  That, in the modern sense of an old fashioned word, he was a saint,
                                                                                                  For in everything he did he served the
                                                                                                   Greater community”
                                                                                                           -The Unknown Citizen by W. H. Auden

                                                                                                  " A passage to India !         
                                                                                                         Lo soul su' st thou not God's purpose -         .
                                                                                                        from the first "

                                                                                                                  -Whitman’s A passage to India

                                                                                                  8. Heroic couplet

                                                                                                  Two line of rhymed jam bic pentad is known as heroic couplet - a a   bb cc and so on. The term heroic is applied to it in the late 17th century when the frequent use of such couplets formed the heroic poems or epical poems God heroic dramas.

                                                                                                  In English Chaucer is the innovator whose the Legend of Good women and must of The Canterbury Tales are written in the rhyme style. The other masters are Alexander Pope, Dryden, and Samuel Johnson etc.

                                                                                                  Example:

                                                                                                   “No Then thyself presume no God to Scan;

                                                                                                   The proper study of mankind is man”

                                                                                                                          The Essay on Man                                                                                                                                                                            --   Pope

                                                                                                  9. Instress & Inscape

                                                                                                  These Two words are coined by Hopkins to define the variegated world and its Lord Hopkins joins 'inscape' to refer to the ' essential ' individuality of a thing. The distinctive characteristics of a thing --- its particularity or uniqueness are the trails of ' inscape. The definition is however, religious.

                                                                                                                    ' Instress ' is the force of energy which holds the inscape together . The impulse or feeling or impression of a thing is owing to its individuality whose origin lies in ' instress ‘. The splendor and wonder of nature and its pied beauty is the divine mystery. In fact, it is the God for Hopkins.

                                                                                                  10. Lyric

                                                                                                    The origin is Greek which means a song sung by the instrument of Lyre. Though the the original sense is still kept , Lyric in general sense is a type of poetry which is shorter in genre and usually expresses the thoughts and feelings of a speaker . However, it does not confirm the speaker being the poet himself or the thoughts poet's own subjective world. Lyric is a distinct form apart forms the dramatic or narrative poems. The famous lyrical poems include Coleridge’s Frost at Midnight, Rossetti’s song or Alfred Tennyson's Break, Break , Break etc .

                                                                                                  11. Metre

                                                                                                  (metrics) Metre measures the rhythm of a line of a verse or the theory of the phonetic structure of verse. The word metre derives from Greek word ' mefrom' which means ' measure ‘. Traditionally metre refers to the regular, recurrence of feet. According to the Hungarian -- American linguist John Lotz, “In some languages there are texts in which the phonetic material within certain syntactic frames, such as sentences, phrase, and word is numerically regulated. Such text is called verse, and its distinctive characteristic is metre ". Metrics is the study of metre of a verse.

                                                                                                                               There are basically four types of metres. They are:

                                                                                                                                  i) Syllable - stress or accented syllabic metres

                                                                                                                                  ii) Strong stress metres

                                                                                                                                 iii) Syllabic metres

                                                                                                                                 iv) Quantitative metres.

                                                                                                  12. Mock epic

                                                                                                  The mock epic is a parody of the real epic in a light no serious mood. The true genius of mock heroic poem lies in traversing the serious epic in bringing all the leading features of the epic - machinery, lofty incidents, characters and style to the exaltation of a trivial subject. It mustno doubt entertain a moral bearing but the satire ought not to be Too apparent.

                                                                                                                           The Rape of the Lock by Alexander pope,  Dryden's Mac Flecknoe are notable mock heroic poems . From wider sense of the term even Gray’s Begger's Qpera was burlesque of dramatic form whereas The life of Jonathan Wilde The Great by Fielding is Parody of heroic biographies of truly great persons.

                                                                                                  13. Negative capability

                                                                                                  This is the phrase by which Keats defines a poet in his job. Keats here means to say that a poet has no personality of his own; he assumes the personality of the characters he creates. “The poets have none, no identity -- he is certainly the most unpoetical of all God's creatures."

                                                                                                  The analyses of the keatsian concept can be summed up in two key points . Firstly , keats favours an aesthetic distance , an impersonal objective view of the author . Secondly , he means that a beautiful artistic form when embodied in a subject , the ordinary standard of judging through experience is not applicable .

                                                                                                  14. Objective correlative

                                                                                                  In his essay Hamlet and His problem T. S. Eliot used this term to explain how emotion is best expressed in poetry. " objective correlative is a set of objects , a situation , a chain of events which shall be the formula of that particular emotion , such that when the external facts , which must terminate in sensory experience are given , the emotion is immediately evoked " . According to T. S. Eliot the poet should transfer his emotions in a set of objects, a situation, a chain of events. The only way of expressing emotion in the form of art is by finding an objective co - relative.

                                                                                                  Exp: T. S. Eliot in his famous poem the waste Land depicts the spiritual sterility of modern man though the objective correlative of Waste Land.

                                                                                                  15. Ode

                                                                                                  Ode is a long lyrical ceremonial poem, serious in subject elevated in style and elaborates in its stanza structure. It is in the form of an address to the object or the person about whom it is written.

                                                                                                                       Generally there are Two type of odes ----   Horation and Pindaric. Horation ode is in calm, meditative and restrained homostrophic stanzas.

                                                                                                      Exp :  To Autumn  by keats

                                                                                                  A Pindaric ode observes a strict regularity both as regards the measure and number of stanzas and verse and the wherence of thought. A Pindaric ode normally consists of three stanzas called the stophe , the anti -- strophe , and the epode . (Regular odes)

                                                                                                  Exp : The Progress of Poesy by Gray

                                                                                                  There is also irregular ode which is Pindaric in style but has variety of stanzaic divisions ---

                                                                                                      Exp : Collin's Ode To Evening

                                                                                                  16. Ottava rima

                                                                                                  The origin of this rhyme scheme is Italian. Like Sonnet and terza rima it was also introduced in English by Wyatt in 16th century. The premier example of this verse form is Don Juan. The rhyme scheme of the eight line stanza is a b a b a b c c. It is noticeable that an extra rhyme has been introduced in the rhyme royal scheme. Here in ottava rima the single couplet at the end of the stanza gives a witty verbal snap to the foregoing section.

                                                                                                  Exp:  " A long , long kiss , a kiss of youth and love ,
                                                                                                               And beauty , all loncentrating like rays
                                                                                                               Into one focus , kindled from above ;
                                                                                                               such kisses as belong to early days ,
                                                                                                               where heart , and soul , and sense , in concert move ,
                                                                                                                And the blood's lava , and the pulse a blaze,
                                                                                                               Each kiss a heart - quake - for a kiss's strength ,
                                                                                                               I think it must be reckon'd by its length  "

                                                                                                                                                                          Don Juan

                                                                                                                                                                              By Lord Byron

                                                                                                  17. Pantheism

                                                                                                  The pantheism defines complex understandings of religious and philosophical beliefs. It puts for ward a God - Nature relation. It expounds that God is present in Nature and is integrated within inseparably. As the God is the creator and the Nature is his creation how can they be separated? The thought is however originated from Plato and Platonists of the 16th century.

                                                                                                  Many of the English poets and their poetry are inspired by pantheism. Among them Wordsworth and his inspired poems The prelude, Tintern Abbey etc are notable examples.

                                                                                                  18. Platonic love

                                                                                                  It is the theorization of Plato’s discussion in the Symposium. It relates three distinct senses or ideas by Plato. Firstly, it states a love between individuals which transcends sexual desire and attains spiritual heights. Secondly, it states a kind of love through sexuality which is directed at an ideal end. The thought is being carried in Donne's The Extasy. Thirdly, platonic love also refers to isomosexual love and Plato voices in favour of this relationship in his symposium.

                                                                                                  19. Poetic Justice

                                                                                                  It is a phrase coined by Thomas Rhymer to evaluate a poetic piece. It means exact reward or punishment given to a character according to his good or bad deeds. This exactness of justice is possible in the world of poetry.

                                                                                                                           The poetic justice is the righteous ideal principle of decorum that must be followed by the author. If the poetic Justice is denied the possibility of tragic suffering and its intensity will be missing. The tragic Flans must have to be punished and virtues rewarded.

                                                                                                  20.  Prosody

                                                                                                  That art of writing poetry or part of grammar which deals with laws governing the structure of verse or versification is called prosody. It encompasses the study of all the elements of language that contribute towards acoustic or rhythmic effects chiefly in poetry but also in prose. Ezra pound called prosody “the articulation of the total sound of a poem ". Simply speaking all that can produce harmony and melody in poetry may be taken as the subject - matter of poetry. The plinth of prosody is based on two elements -- quality and accent. However, the accent is the key factor in understanding prosody.

                                                                                                  21. Rhyme royal

                                                                                                  This is one of the popular varieties of rhyme scheme. There is a seven line stanza in rhyme royal -- a b a b b c c. It looks as if a quatrain has been dovetailed onto two couplets. Rhyme royal was used by Chaucer for the first line in English in Troilus and Criseyde and then by Shakespeare in The Rape of Lucrece. However, royal name is derived from King James I of Scotland’s use of it in his poem The king's Book (1424).

                                                                                                  22. Sonnet

                                                                                                  The sonnet today is defined as a lyric of fourteen lines in the iambic pentameter form. It is also linked by an intricate rhyme scheme.

                                                                                                  The sonnet was originally a stanza used by Sicilian school of court poets in the 13th century. From there it reached its highest expression in the poetry of Petrarch. He wrote 3/4 sonnet idealizing his beloved Laura. In England it was Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey and Sir Thomas Wyatt who experimented with the sonnet form and gave it the structure that Shakespeare used and made famous. Since then the Sonnet (origin Sonneto meaning a little sound) has proved itself to be one of the most versatile of the poetic form. Basically they are written in Sonnet sequence i . e. Long poems composed of a series of sonnets. Most of the Sonnets fall into these categories -- the Petrarchian, Shakespearean and Spenserian.

                                                                                                  23. Sprung rhythm

                                                                                                  In ' sprung rhythm ' the general metrical rhythm is not followed, father it springs occasionally. In spring rhythm, the accented syllables in the line are counted but there is no limit on the total number of syllables. It has greater freedom of using stressed or unstressed syllables. The stressed syllables here may occur random or one after another. Even the total number of syllables in a foot may vary from one to four or more, but each foot must begin with a strong stress
                                                                                                  Exp : Pied Beauty

                                                                                                  24. Terza rima

                                                                                                  A three rhymed pattern (i . e   three line are rhyming together ) is called a triplet or tercet . Three lines with one set of rhyming words can be found in Tennyson's The Eagle, Dryden's poetry etc. This is however, not very common in English and is generally used to give variety to a poem in the rhyming couplet. However, the rhymes are sometimes linked from verse to verse and may be run as aba -- bcb -- cdc -- ded -- and so on. This form of triplet is called Terza Rima . It is borrowed from Italian and was employed by Dante in his Devine comedy. The finest example of it in English is Shelly Ode To The West Wind which, however, ends in a couplet.

                                                                                                  25. Vates

                                                                                                    ' vates ' is a Greek word which means a maker or a creator . The Greeks originally defined a poet as ' vates ' because a poet is next to God the only creator of the original form of the world and nature. In fact, a poet re - creates an imaginative and aesthetic world alike the God's own.


                                                                                                  Ref: 
                                                                                                    1. ALBERT. (2000). History of English Literature (Fifth Edition) [English]. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS.
                                                                                                    2. A history of English literature : Compton-Rickett, Arthur, 1869-1937 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/historyofenglish00comprich
                                                                                                   3.Glosarry of Literary Terms_ Abraham

                                                                                                  Analysis of William Shakespeare's ‘Measure for Measure’ as a Problem Play


                                                                                                  Introduction

                                                                                                  E. K. Chambers remarks that in "Measure for Measure the evidence of Shakespeare’s profound disillusionment and discouragement of spirit is plain enough that the searchlight of irony is thrown upon the paths of Providence itself”. It is written in 1604. it is Shakespeare’s last comedy, and it is considered by many to be the best-known and most controversial comedy of the author's tragic period. It contains many dark, somber elements more typical of the tragedies to come. Critically "Measure for Measure" is often categorized as a problem play by William Shakespeare. This genre refers to plays that do not fit neatly into the traditional categories of comedy or tragedy. Instead, they explore complex moral and social issues, presenting a mix of serious and comedic elements. 

                                                                                                  What are the Problems?

                                                                                                  George L. Geckle in "Shakespeare's Isabella" has critically evaluated the problems in the play. Critics widely consider "Measure for Measure" as a problem play due to the various issues it explores, including the relationships between government and morality, law and justice, and mercy and justice. The play's dramatic structure, genre, and the actions of its characters also contribute to its classification as a problem play. Problem plays often blend elements of comedy and tragedy. In "Measure for Measure," Shakespeare incorporates both comedic and serious moments. The interactions between the bawdy characters provide comic relief, while the serious plotlines involving Angelo, Isabella, and Claudio tackle weightier themes of justice and morality.

                                                                                                  Isabella: A Character Study

                                                                                                   Among the play's characters, Isabella has become a focal point of critical analysis, with many contradictory statements made about her, similar to the scrutiny surrounding Hamlet. However, the critical problem surrounding Isabella arises from an inaccurate and untenable consensus that has developed over time. This consensus is based on two factors: first, a significant number of prominent critics disapproving of Isabella, and secondly, the distortion of certain events and speeches in the play to support the notion that Shakespeare himself disapproved of Isabella and subtly undermined her position throughout the play.

                                                                                                  Una Ellis - Fermor on Isabella: “Hard as an icicle she visits Claudio in person and lays before him the terms and her decisions – her pitilessness only growing with his pleading. Creation and death are the two issues which form the core of the play. There is equal emphasis on the forces of harmony and discord. Shakespeare’s play ends neatly with two marriages: one performed, between Mariana and Angelo, the other in prospect, between Isabella and the duke."

                                                                                                  Character Development

                                                                                                  Problem plays often feature complex and multifaceted characters. In "Measure for Measure," characters like Angelo and Isabella undergo significant transformations throughout the play. Angelo, initially seen as virtuous, is revealed to be morally corrupt, while Isabella's journey challenges her beliefs and tests her resolve.

                                                                                                  Even the characters are far too complete to be personification. Isabella is a complex character – she cannot be dismissed as an embodiment of chastity or Holiness. First one thinks of a nun’s vocation; he has a strong will – power, belief in his own principles, and a readiness to face the consequences of his actions. The duke is a representative of true secular, spiritual authority. His position is not threatened with war or intrigues. He is modest, retiring and capable of wry humour. The essential quest in measure for measure was the crowning achievement of the last plays.

                                                                                                  Moral Ambiguity

                                                                                                  William Shakespeare

                                                                                                  One of the key characteristics of a problem play is the exploration of moral ambiguity. In "Measure for Measure," Shakespeare delves into the grey areas of justice, mercy, and morality. The characters' actions and decisions often blur the lines between right and wrong, making it challenging for the audience to determine clear-cut moral judgments.

                                                                                                  The modern critics have preoccupied with the tensions in the earlier part of the play. A recent definition of a ‘problem’ play runs thus: “A play in which we find a concern with a moral problem which is central to it presented in such a manner that we are unsure of our moral bearings, so that  uncertain and divided responses to it in the minds of the audience are possible and even probable”. (E.Sehanzer). 

                                                                                                  Sexual Morality

                                                                                                   The play addresses the topic of sexual morality and the hypocrisy surrounding it. The character Angelo, who presents himself as morally upright, succumbs to his own desires and attempts to coerce Isabella, a novice nun, into a sexual relationship. This raises questions about the double standards of society and the manipulation of power dynamics.

                                                                                                  Exploration of Power

                                                                                                   Power dynamics and their consequences are central to problem plays. "Measure for Measure" explores the abuse of power by characters like Angelo, who exploits his authority for personal gain. The play also examines the role of power in relationships, highlighting the vulnerability and manipulation that can occur.

                                                                                                  The play is thus concerned with the nature of authority, the - working of psyche, and the predicament of man faced with the universal facts of greater mystery of the actual individual. The art is ‘incarnational’ as Hough says, and again according to Hough the play’s true greatness is felt wherever its concepts are “completely absorbed in character and action and completely expressed by them”. Scholars have long debated the outcome of Shakespeare’s plot. Perhaps he was aware that the sacrifice of Isabella’s honor, followed later by her marriage to the man who had evilly betrayed her trust to gratify his own desires, as portrayed in the sources, would offend the sensibilities of his audience. This manipulation of events to induce a happy ending belongs to comedy, but there is startling contrast between the light-hearted intrigue in this last act and the serious, tragic tone of earlier scenes. In fact, the improbability of the love matches has led some scholars to criticize the last act’s tidiness as mere deference to strict comic form. But in its mixture of comic and tragic traits, Measure for Measure serves as an appropriate end to Shakespeare’s comic output, and as a gateway to a long succession of tragedies.

                                                                                                  Social Critique

                                                                                                  It typically offer a critique of the society in which they are set. "Measure for Measure" examines the flaws and hypocrisies within the Vienna of Shakespeare's time. The play explores themes of corruption, abuse of power, and sexual morality, highlighting the societal issues of the era.

                                                                                                  Ambiguous Endings

                                                                                                  Problem plays often have ambiguous or unresolved endings, leaving the audience with questions and moral dilemmas. In "Measure for Measure," the conclusion is open to interpretation. Isabella's decision to save her brother by sacrificing her virtue can be seen as both morally complex and emotionally challenging. The play does not offer a clear-cut resolution, leaving the audience to ponder the ethical implications.

                                                                                                  Conclusion

                                                                                                  Overall, "Measure for Measure" embodies the characteristics of a problem play through its exploration of moral ambiguity, social critique, sexual morality, the blend of comedy and tragedy, ambiguous endings, power dynamics, and nuanced character development. Shakespeare raises thought-provoking questions about justice, mercy, and the complexities of human behavior, making it a quintessential example of the problem play genre.


                                                                                                  Ref:
                                                                                                   1. Kocher, P. H., & Ellis-Fermor, U. (1949, February). The Frontiers of Drama. Modern Language Notes, 64(2), 127. https://doi.org/10.2307/2910072   
                                                                                                   2. The complete works of William Shakespeare, with a full and comprehensive life; a history of the early drama; an introduction to each play; the readings of former editions; glossarial and other notes, etc., etc., from the work of Collier, Knight, Dyce, Douce, Halliwell, Hunter, Richardson, Verplanck, and Hudson. Edited by George Long Duyckinck : Shakespeare, William, 1564-1616 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/completeworksofw00shakuoft
                                                                                                   3. Una Ellis-Fermor Kenneth Muir. Routledge Library Editiam SHAKESPEARE 'S DRAMA SHAKESPEARE Ronz'leelge Likmry Editions Shakespeare IN Shakespeare's Poetic Styles II. SHAKESPEARE'S DRAMA
                                                                                                  4. Geckle, G. L. (1971). Shakespeare’s Isabella. Shakespeare Quarterly, 22(2), 163–168. https://doi.org/10.2307/2868806
                                                                                                  5. Sisson, C. J. (1931). [Review of William Shakespeare: A Study of Facts and Problems, by E. K. Chambers]. The Review of English Studies, 7(26), 216–223. http://www.jstor.org/stable/508512
                                                                                                  6. Shakespearean problem play - Wikipedia. (n.d.). Shakespearean Problem Play - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespearean_problem_play

                                                                                                  Four Great Tragedies of Shakespeare: –Hamlet, Othello, Macbeth and King Lear




                                                                                                  In the third period of Shakespearean world (1600-1608), tragedy predominates. Starting with Julius Cacsar (1601) he raises to greater heights in the celebrated ‘The four Great Tragedies –Hamlet, Othello, Macbeth and King Lear. The structure of Julius Caesar is unusual. It looks like two tragedies in one, first Ceasar’s and then Brutus’s. It is also a revenge tragedy when Antony becomes the avenger. For the playwright the shift from English history in the recently completed Henry V to roman history released a new confidence. 

                                                                                                     Hamlet, Probably written in 1601,  is a tragedy of revenge. Hamlet is generally considered the foremost tragedy in English drama. Numerous commentaries have been written analyzing every aspect of the play, and interpretation of Hamlet’s character and motivation continue to be subjects of considerable interest.

                                                                                                   It is so because the figure of Hamlet has so fascinated successive generations, the play has provoked more discussion, more performances and more scholarship than any other in the whole history of world drama. It stands at the very centre of Shakespeare’s dramatic career, on the one hand concluding a decade that had seen the composition of the mature comedies and English history plays and on the other preceding the sequence of great tragedies.   

                                                                                                  Buy My Books

                                                                                                  Buy My Books
                                                                                                  Objective Questions from English Literature

                                                                                                  Recent Posts