Word formation does not often involve the creation of completely new words with no prior association. In fact, entirely novel words are rare in modern usage. The English vocabulary has evolved continuously for over 1,500 years, resulting in a lexicon that includes over one million words, encompassing obsolete forms and variant spellings. This extensive vocabulary is one of the largest of any language, with a word-building capacity comparable to Chinese. Various factors have contributed to this linguistic expansion, with the most common method being the adaptation of existing words or word elements. The primary factors in word formation include affixation, compounding, conversion, clipping, blending, acronyms, and borrowing. Let's explore these key processes that shape the vocabulary. Compounding involves combining two or more existing words into a new term. This process has been a cornerstone of English word formation throughout history. Compound words may be written as a single word, hyphenated, or as two separate words.
Examples:
- Rail-road, house-top, notebook (noun-noun compound)
- Air-tight, foot-sore (noun-adjective compound)
- Up-shot, over-head (adverb-noun compound)
- Bittersweet, evergreen (adverb-adjective compound)
Clipping is the shortening of longer words by removing part of them without changing their meaning. This informal process does not follow strict rules, but three types can be identified:
- Fore clipping (initial part is dropped): plane (from airplane), phone (from telephone).
- Back clipping (end part is dropped): exam (from examination), bike (from bicycle).
- Fore and aft clipping (middle part is retained): flu (from influenza), fridge (from refrigerator).
Derivation involves creating new words by adding prefixes or suffixes (known as affixes) to a base word. Unlike compounding, affixes do not stand alone but modify existing words to create new meanings or grammatical forms.
Examples of prefixes:
- Pre- (before): prefix, prefer
- Inter- (between): intercept, interpersonal
Examples of suffixes: - -able (capable of): portable, legible
- -ism (doctrine or belief): socialism, monotheism
Back-formation is the reverse of derivation, where affixes are removed to create new words. This process often converts nouns into verbs.
Examples:
- Editor → edit
- Burglar → burgle
- Periwig → wig
Conversion involves changing the grammatical function of a word without altering its form. This process is common in English, where nouns can become verbs and vice versa.
Examples:
- Paper (noun) → to paper (verb)
- Feature (noun) → to feature (verb)
- Bridge (noun) → to bridge (verb)
Blending combines parts of two words to create a new term. Usually, the beginning of one word is merged with the end of another.
Examples:
- Brunch (breakfast + lunch)
- Smog (smoke + fog)
- Motel (motorist + hotel)
English has borrowed words from many languages throughout its history, reflecting its rich cultural and historical contacts.
Examples:
- From French: café, mansion
- From Latin: exodus, cheese
- From Spanish: taco, mosquito
- From Japanese: sushi, origami
- From Hindi: chutney, pajamas
Foreign Borrowings
Latin *after the arrival of Christianity
Bishop, church, priest.
Scandinavian * Viking invasion (8th Cent)
Egg, sky, window
French * Norman Conquest (11th Cent)
Warden, reward, mansion café, lingerie, envelope, and avalanche
Latin * End of Renaissance (16th Cent)
cheese, street, campanile, and exodus
Borrowings from other countries:
Australia: boomerang, kangaroo , Wombat
New Zealand: kiwi, pakeha
Javanese: batik, lahar
Japanese: geisha, hibachi, sushi, bonsai, and origami
Spanish: Puma, quinine, pueblo, guacamole, fajita, Mosquito, Sherry, canon, comrade matador, siesta and macho
India: chutney, bungalow, pajamas, amok, bungalow, cashmere, pajamas, khaki, gymkhanas, polo, swastika, loot and polo
Chinese- tea, rickshaw (jinrikisha)
Malay- Sago, bamboo, teak, raffia
Mexico- Cacao, tomato
Brazil- cayenne, tapioca
Arabia- orange, lemon, algebra, assassin harem, Moslem, Islam
Apart from the above processes by which words are formed leading to the enrichment of the vocabulary, certain individuals, in their own right, have immensely contributed to the growth of the English word stock. If not poet Geoffrey Chaucer we are sure to miss our ‘attention’, ‘duration’, ‘fraction’, ‘position’ and soon. If not Shakespeare finds the world ‘dull’, and answer ‘abrupt’, speeches ‘flowery’, and plain faces ‘homely’ our language would have been epithet less. To ‘breathe one’s last’ or ‘backing a horse’ or ‘catching a cold’ we must thank our grand master. To enlarge the list we are ‘dimensionless’ without Milton, can’t be in ‘full-throated case’ without Keats, ‘bored’ without Byron, ‘gruesome’, ‘uncanny’ and ‘glamour less’ without Scott.
Conclusion:
Word formation processes like affixation, compounding, conversion, clipping, blending, acronyms, and borrowing are essential to the dynamic growth of the English language. These mechanisms allow for the creation of new words, the adaptation of existing ones, and the ongoing evolution of the language in response to cultural, technological, and social changes. Understanding these factors helps in grasping how the English vocabulary expands and adapts to new contexts.
Ref: Bauer, L. (1983). English Word-Formation. Cambridge University Press.
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