Literary Criticism: Marxism in details- Althusser’s Ideology

Althusserian Ideology: Unveiling Power Structures in Literary Criticism

The Epistemological Break and Althusser's Theory of Ideology

Louis Althusser (1918-1990), French philosopher, is best known for his contributions to the debate over the origins and development of the theories of German philosopher Karl Marx. Althusser viewed Marx’s writings as having two distinct stages: an early humanistic or ideological period and a later scientific phase that culminated in the publication of DasKapital (1867; Capital, 1907-1909). Between these two stages, Althusser postulated the existence of what he called an epistemological break. With this term, he intended to show that developments in science do not emerge from gradual, piecemeal change, but are instead the result of sudden dislocations in knowledge where the entire framework of a theory is replaced.

Althusser's ideology, within the framework of Marxism, offers a distinct perspective on the analysis of literature and culture. Louis Althusser, a prominent French Marxist philosopher, developed his theory of ideology as a way to understand the workings of social and economic systems. In literary criticism, Althusser's ideas have been influential in examining how literature reflects and reinforces dominant ideologies.

The Role of Interpellation and Ideological State Apparatuses in Literary Representation

Central to Althusser's theory is the concept of ideology as a set of ideas and beliefs that shape an individual's understanding of the world and their place within it. According to Althusser, ideology is not merely a reflection of material conditions but plays an active role in maintaining social structures and relationships of power.

Althusser argues that ideology functions through interpellation or hailing, a process by which individuals are called upon and recognize themselves as subjects within a particular ideology. This means that ideology is not imposed from the outside but is internalized and incorporated into individuals' identities. In literature, this process can be seen through the representation of characters who embody and reproduce dominant ideologies.

Althusser's theory also emphasizes the concept of the ideological state apparatuses (ISAs), which are institutions and practices that reinforce and reproduce ideology within society. Examples of ISAs include educational institutions, religious organizations, media, and the family. In literature, these institutions can be seen as shaping the characters and their behaviors, as well as the broader social dynamics depicted in the text.

Althusser's Departure from Economic Determinism: The Concept of Relative Autonomy

Althusser's analysis of ideology in literature extends to the notion of the "subject supposed to know." This refers to the authority figures within a given ideology who are perceived as having special knowledge or expertise. In literature, characters such as wise mentors, religious leaders, or political figures can embody this role. Their authority reinforces the ideology and influences the actions and beliefs of other characters.

Furthermore, Althusser's concept of the "symptomatic reading" has implications for literary analysis. A symptomatic reading looks beyond the surface of a text to uncover the underlying contradictions and tensions within the dominant ideology. It seeks to expose how literature reflects and challenges the prevailing social order.

Althusser’s most important innovation was his rejection of the Marxian doctrine of strict economic determinism: the assertion that the economic system by which goods are produced determines the organization of society and therefore a society’s political and intellectual history. Marx further stated that this history invariably comprises struggles between the ruling class and the oppressed classes. Through his idea of relative autonomy, Althusser asserted that it was possible to study politics, law, and philosophy as activities independent of economic production. The result was the introduction of a more complex model of historical change into the Marxian scheme.

The Controversial Shift: Althusser's Antihumanism and the Scientific Character of Marxism

Althusser’s most controversial idea was that Marxism was not a moral philosophy concerned with the alienation of humankind under capitalism and its possible redemption under socialism, but rather that Marxism was a science and an “antihumanism.” The result of Althusser’s work, which was criticized by traditional Marxists, was to make Marxism seem less like a revolutionary program aimed at the liberation of humankind and more like a purely theoretical doctrine concerned with the conditions of scientific knowledge.

The view that the base determines the cultural superstructure is not seen by all because there are forces at work that prevent us from seeing that, for instance the liberal humanist view that we are essentially free. It is here that ideology works and makes us experience life in a certain way and also at the same time makes us believe that that way of seeing the world is natural. The French Marxist philosopher says that ideology works through ideological state apparatuses, which although they may have their own sub-ideology are all subjected to the ruling ideology. Althusser’s ideological state apparatuses include organized religion, the law, the political system, the educational system, in short all the institutions through which we are socialized. So, everything is pervaded by ideology. And while we believe we are acting out of our free will, we are in reality ‘acted by the system’. 

Althusser's ideology has been critiqued for its potential to downplay individual agency and for its focus on the reproduction of power structures. Critics argue that his framework neglects the potential for resistance and subversion within literature and culture.

Drawing on French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, Althusser says that the processes we go through when we grow up leave us forever incomplete. Aware of that deep lack and yearning for completion, we turn to ideology because it constantly ‘interpellates’ or addresses us as concrete subjects. It convinces us that we are whole and real and so we see what ideology makes us see, as belonging to the natural, harmonious order of things. Ideology makes us believe we are free agents and in that way makes us complicit in our own delusion.

Conclusion

In summary, Althusser's theory of ideology offers a way to analyze literature by examining how it reflects and perpetuates dominant ideologies. Through concepts such as interpellation, ISAs, and the subject supposed to know, Althusser provides tools for understanding the ways in which literature participates in shaping and reproducing social and economic systems. However, it is important to consider the limitations of Althusser's approach and to acknowledge the potential for alternative readings that highlight resistance and subversion within literature.

  Ardhendu De 

References

Reading Althusser : an essay on structural Marxism : Smith, Steven B., 1951- : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive. (n.d.). Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/readingalthusser00smit

1. Literary Criticism: Marxism in details

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